World History

The term world history does not denote the Earth's history but human history, the emergence of to the present.

The Paleolithic

Early Human Migration, as set out in millennia before our time by the genetic mitochondrial.

The genetics and the study of fossils show that Homo sapiens appears in modern Africa there are approximately 200 000 years, after a long period of evolution. For thousands of years already, the ancestors of man, like the Homo erectus , use tools , but over time they become more developed and complex. It also develops as Palaeolithic language and that the burial of the dead is becoming widespread. This last feature suggests a capacity for foresight - the burial mask the decomposing body - and a better understanding of the concept of death.

The men of that time is relative to other objects to enhance their appearance. They live by hunting and gathering and are generally nomadic.

The human population soon spread across Africa and unfrozen areas of Europe and of Asia. The rapid human colonization of North America and the Pacific held, meanwhile, during the last glaciation , at a time when today's temperate zones are extremely inhospitable. At the end of the last glaciation, there are approximately 12 000 years, man is installed in virtually all areas of the world's unfrozen.

Sometimes, some companies hunter-gatherers in general very small, growing social stratification and establish contacts over long distances.

Over time, most of these hunter-gatherers become State Farm more important, or are absorbed by such states, others remain isolated or are exterminated. There are still some remote areas.

The Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic

The northern hemisphere during the last glaciation.

The Mesolithic period began at the end of the Pleistocene , there are about 10 000 years, and ends with the development of agriculture whose date of onset varies by region. In some places where agriculture is already present in the late Pleistocene - the Middle East for example - the Mesolithic is short and poorly defined and, for regions not affected by glaciation, we sometimes prefer to speak of Epipaleolithic. The regions most affected are aware, they, a much sharper Mesolithic period, perhaps for several millennia. This is the case, for example, for companies of Northern Europe who benefit from the abundance of food provided to them by marshlands created by climate change. These differences generate a specification of local cultures as evidenced by the remains Azilian and Maglemosean and delay the transition to the Neolithic, which takes place only to 4000 BC. AD in northern Europe.

The remains of this period are rare and often limited to landfills (accumulations of waste food) but the first signs of deforestation occur in forested areas. The practice is not generalized, however, that when Neolithic agriculture will necessitate the use of large spaces.

The Mesolithic is characterized in general by microliths in Flint. Articles for the fishing , the adzes of stone and wooden objects, canoes and bows have been found on some sites.

The Neolithic and protohistoric

Starting during the ^tenth millennium BC. BC , the Neolithic is characterized by the beginnings of the settlement , the introduction of livestock , the invention of agriculture and early metalwork.

Development of agriculture

The Fertile Crescent.

A crucial change - called " revolution "by the prehistorian Vere Gordon Childe - takes place around the ^ninth millennium BC. AD with the development of agriculture. These are the Sumerians who start, to 9500 BC. AD In 7000 , the practice is widespread in the valley of the Indus , in 6000 , in Egypt , in 5000 in China. She also appears in Mesoamerica around 2700. Traditional research has tended to focus on the region of the Fertile Crescent but studies archaeological conducted on the American continent and in East Asia and South-East indicate that some agricultural systems may have been developed almost to the same periods.

A further step in the evolution of agriculture in the Near East, from 5500 BC. AD , the development of irrigation and use organized by the Sumerians of a labor specialist. The bronze and iron to displace the stone which depended on agriculture for making agricultural tools and weapons. Tools, ornaments and weapons in copper or bronze are becoming the norm around 3000 BC. AD. Then the use of iron grows in the Mediterranean East, the Middle East and China.

It is possible that the Americas have ignored the use of iron to the culture of Chavin in 900 BC. AD , but we know that Moshe had to armor , to knives and tableware made of metal. The Incas themselves, though not rich in metal, covering the butt of their plows , at least after their conquest of the Chimu. Archaeological research in Peru , however, was very limited so far - we still discovered whole towns in 2004 - the Spanish conquest and burned most of the quipus (strings of colors on a sequence of nodes and recording of data) the time. Some excavations suggest that the steel could be melted before even being in Europe.

Livestock and agriculture in ancient Egypt.

The valleys of the rivers become the cradles of early civilizations: the Yellow River in China, the Nile in Egypt and the Indus in Pakistan. Some nomadic peoples, such as Australian Aborigines or Bushmen of southern Africa, do not directly agriculture.

Until the beginnings of colonization European in the nineteenth ^century , much of the planet is occupied by human groups unincorporated States. Threatened or influenced by States have already formed, these groups transform themselves to become states (see Moravia , Lithuania ). Some groups, such as Kassites and Manchu , are absorbed by the states they conquered.

Agriculture can help the emergence of corporate complexes, called "civilizations" on state formation and the emergence of market. However, we can find a cons-example: the Mongols were pastors who have created the largest empire that ever existed. The technology , meanwhile, allows man to control nature and to develop transport and communications.

The Birth of religion

Some historians place the beginnings of the Neolithic religious beliefs - mainly worships a goddess mother and a sky-father and deification of the sun and moon.

The dawn of civilization

The Rise of States

The Treaty of Kadesh. One of the oldest peace treaties.

The development of agriculture has many consequences capitals, one of them being that the concentrations of people are becoming increasingly important and are organized into states. There are several meanings of the term "State." Max Weber and Norbert Elias defined as the organization exclusively controlling human and legal use of force on a specific geographic area.

The first states appear in Mesopotamia , Egypt and the Indus Valley in the late IV ^millennium BC. BC and early ^III. In Mesopotamia, they take the form of city-states, while Egypt, initially without city, is developing rapidly. The civilization of the Indus Valley is an exception in that it does not seem to have disposed of the armed forces traditionally requires a State to establish its legitimacy - requiring armed force itself a bureaucracy. In China, the late ^third millennium BC. BC and the early ^Second show delivery of the first States.

Middle East, the States present sometimes conflict. One of the first peace treaties, the Treaty of Kadesh , was signed between the Egyptians and the Hittites around 1275 BC. BC Major empires are formed with the core territory of origin of a group that conquered the surrounding areas. This is the case of the Persian ( ^sixth century BC. ), the Mauryan Empire ( ^fourth century BC. ), China ( ^third century BC. J. -C. ) and Rome ( ^first century BC. ).

Sometimes large empires clash. This applies to the ^eighth century , when the Caliphate of Arabia , which extends from Spain to Iran , fighting for decades for control of Central Asia against China of Tang , whose empire extends to Korea. The greatest empire on earth was that of the Mongols in the ^thirteenth century. At that time, most people in Europe, Asia and North Africa depend States. There are also states in Mexico and in the western part of South America. Gradually, all regions and peoples of the world fall under the jurisdiction of a State or another, the Berlin Treaty of 1878 distributes the final "white" remaining.

Ruins of the city of Palmyra in the Middle East.

Black Africa has not escaped this global movement of birth states although this is a bit late. Indeed, several U.S. States Cities and empires have emerged under the stewardship of charismatic leaders who could manipulate diplomatie.Ces States military strategy and have lived in all areas of SSA.

. Companies located in West Africa are very different origins. To the south of Senegal to the Gulf of Guinea, the rainforest was settled by people speaking languages Niger-Congo, like all the languages spoken south of a line drawn north from Senegal to southern Somalia. Farther north, the savannah regions saw small groups settle speaking Nilo-Saharan language, probably in search of more fertile land due to the encroaching desert. These groups were scattered along the Middle Niger and the southern shores of Lake Chad near flood plains suitable for agriculture.

From the ninth century, several states dynastic succession along the savannah Sahara, the Atlantic coast in central Sudan, the most powerful were the Ghana empire, the kingdom of Gao and the kingdom of Kanem-Bornu. Ghana begins to decline in the eleventh century and the empire of Mali succeed him two centuries later. In the fifteenth century, while Mali itself begins to lose territory, the chief Sonni Ali Ber Songhai escapes the authority of his overlord and founded the Songhai Empire, in the center of Niger, from which n That was a vassal kingdom of Mali.

Meanwhile, from the eleventh century, the Hausa cities, especially Kano in northern Nigeria today, grew through the course of trade and industry, to form city-states. They remained on the edge of the main Sudanese empire until the fifteenth century, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and the kingdom of Kanem-Bornu in the east.

The progression of the Arabs to the south was interrupted by rain forest across the continent at the 10th parallel north. They never reached the coast of Guinea and the kingdoms that developed there remained outside of any Islamic influence. Ife, the oldest of these Yoruba city-states known, was ruled by a priest appointed by the king as oni. Cultural and religious center of the current southern Nigeria from the eighth century Ife export its system of government to the city of Oyo, who extended his power gradually on the surrounding area to overshadow his mother-city and prosper within its own state in the fifteenth century, the kingdom of Oyo.

The Yoruba also settled east of Ife, edo-growing region in the thirteenth century, and founded the kingdom of Benin. Two hundred years later, he became a major trading power, isolating Ife coast and its ports. At its peak between the sixteenth and seventeenth century, the kingdom was annexed part of the territory of the Yoruba and Igbo.

Cities and Trade

As it grows, agriculture creates the necessary conditions for the emergence of cities , places without own agricultural production. These cities consume surplus agricultural areas surrounding and in return they provide some military protection.

The development of cities leads futures so-called civilization. The first are the Sumerian civilization (circa 3500 BC. ), the Egyptian civilization (c. 3300 BC. ) and the civilization of the Indus Valley (circa 3300 BC. J. - C. ). The social and economic cultures of these cities is sophisticated and complex, but the differences are still significant enough that we can assume that they were formed independently of each other. It was then that develop the writing and the trade.

Caravan on the Silk Road.
(Catalan Atlas - XIV ^century )

In China, proto-urban societies are created from 2500 BC. AD but the first dynasty attested archaeologically is that of the Shang. The ^second millennium BC. AD saw the emergence of civilization in Crete in Greece and mainland Turkey. Civilizations Mayan , ugly , and Nazca emerged in Mesoamerica and Peru at the end of the ^first millennium BC. AD The currency made its appearance in Lydia.

Trade over long distances to begin ^the third millennium BC. AD between the Sumerians of Mesopotamia and the civilization of the Indus Valley. Other trade routes appear in the eastern Mediterranean in IV ^millennium BC. BC then the ^second millennium BC. BC , between Syria and China ( Silk Road ). The cities of Persia and Central Asia are the major intersections of these roads. It is also on the trade that the Greeks and Phoenicians to build their empires Mediterranean ^first millennium BC. AD At the end of the ^first millennium and early ^Second , the trade routes of the Indian Ocean , from East Asia and the Sahara are controlled by the Arabs. At the end of the ^first millennium , Arabs and Jews also control the trade in the Mediterranean, then the Byzantines and the Ottomans replaced them at the beginning of II ^e. At the same time, the principal trade centers of northern European cities are German and Flemish. This is the crossroads of major trade routes that are developing the most important cities.

Religion and Philosophy

New philosophies and religions appear in the West and East, mostly in ^the sixth century BC. AD Over time, many religions are growing around the world. Among the oldest include the Hinduism and Buddhism in India , and Zoroastrianism in Persia. The Abrahamic religions also date from this period. In the East, three schools of thought will dominate China until today: the Taoist , the Legalism and Confucianism , which will eventually take the ascendancy over the other two and for which the corporation acquired more political power by the copy of tradition than by force of law. In the West, the conquests of Alexander the Great ( ^fourth century BC. ) contribute to the dissemination of Greek philosophy as embodied in the works of Plato and Aristotle.

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right) flanking Confucius.

Major Civilization

Scenario

The first civilizations were born in the fertile floodplains of major rivers like the Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq , the Nile in Egypt , the Indus in Pakistan , the Ganges in India and the Huang He (Yellow River) in China. These regions have in common:

• an arid environment
• the need to develop an irrigation system
• the presence of materials (wood, stone, metal)

If trade relations were established between the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates , the Nile and the Indus , however, Chinese civilization has developed in relative isolation.

These civilizations all develop a system of writing and begin to revolve around cities. These cities run agricultural areas that surround them and make trade of their products. The trade transformed cities and some of them quickly become richer and stronger than others. Meanwhile, cities became rich grow into major religious centers (their accumulated wealth to finance major places of worship). Of Commerce and the religious world are born when an "elite" urban will want to consolidate his power. Precisely in order to consolidate their power and wealth that the elite of great cities will attack the smaller ones. As wealth accumulates, large cities are beginning to tear them. Become rivals, they are at war. Therefore an elite military joins the ranks of traders and religious. On invasion invasion of powerful empires are emerging. These empires newly formed based especially on the enslavement of conquered peoples to maintain their rule and consolidate their power. The slaves then become the basis on which the pyramid companies will be fully supported.

Development

Calendar Aztec.

During the last centuries before the Christian era, the Mediterranean, the Ganges and the Yellow River became centers of empires that many rulers try to emulate in the future. The empires of Maurya and Pandya respectively reign over most of the Indian subcontinent and South India. In China, political unity enables dynasties Qin and Han to strengthen the role of the emperor, to improve communications and create monopolies (Emperor Wudi ). In the West, from the ^third century BC. BC , Rome expanded its territory by conquest and colonization and, in the reign of Emperor Augustus - at the time of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth - full control over the rim of the Mediterranean.

These great empires based on their ability to take advantage of their military conquests and the creation of protected colonies capable of becoming agricultural centers. The relative peace they bring promotes international trade , mainly on the Silk Road , but they must maintain huge armies and centralized administration. It is on the peasantry that these expenditures are based while large landowners increasingly beyond central government. The pressure of barbarians at the borders accelerates the process of internal dissolution: the Han empire succumbed to civil war in 220 , at the same time Rome was decentralized and divided.

Great empires come and go and in all temperate zones of Eurasia , from America and North Africa.

The gradual disintegration of the Roman empire , which spans several centuries after the ^Second , coincides with the spread of Christianity , which came from the Middle East, won the west. In ^the fifth century , the western part of the Roman Empire was conquered by Germanic tribes and is divided into various states warriors all more or less affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church. The other half of the empire, the eastern half, took the name of the Byzantine Empire. Several centuries later, a semblance of unity will be restored in Western Europe with the creation of the Holy Roman Germanic grouping several states on the territories of present Germany and Italy.

Bodhisattva Lokesvara.
(Art Khmer - XII ^century )

In China, dynasties succeed each other too, and the ^fourth century , nomadic North begin to invade northern China where they established many small kingdoms. In 581 , the Sui Dynasty reunified China, which then underwent a second golden age under the Tang ( 618 - 907 ). But Tang also divide and it was not until the Song dynasty in China to be reunified in 982 , after fifty years of agitation. However, pressure from the nomads of the North is increasing and, in 1141 , northern China was conquered by the Jurchen. In 1279 , the Mongol Empire takes over the whole of China and a huge part of Eurasia , leaving free as in Western Europe, Central Europe and Japan.

At that time, North India is headed by Gupta. In southern India, three kingdoms a href = "Tamoul_ (people)" title = "Tamil (people)" class = "mw-redirect"> Tamil emerge: the Chera , the Chola and Pallava. The ensuing stability allows the introduction of the golden age of Hindu culture to ^Fourth and ^fifth centuries.

Major crops are also expanding in Central America , including those of the Mayas and Aztecs. As the mother culture Olmec declines, the Mayan city-states are increasing and becoming more important. Mayan culture is spreading throughout the Yucatan and surrounding areas. The Aztecs, meanwhile, base their society on the basis of previous cultures they conquered, such as that of the Toltecs.

In South America , the Inca empire flourished in the ^fourteenth and ^fifteenth centuries. Tawantinsuyu reign over the entire Andean chain from his capital Cuzco. The Inca culture, prosperous and advanced, is famous for his excellent works of masonry and its roads.

The Islam , one of the largest driving forces of world history appears to the ^seventh century. Cash only initially only a few followers, he will become the foundation on which many will build empires in India , the Middle East and North Africa.

Some enclaves Christian persist in Northeast Africa, in Nubia and Ethiopia - have long regions in contact with the Mediterranean world - but the rest of North Africa converted to Islam under the aegis of which develops Trade Trans-Sahara , the source of substantial revenues that enable the emergence of several kingdoms Sahelian.

This period is punctuated by slow but steady technological improvements, such as the stirrup and moldboard plow.

Machu Picchu, the "lost city" of the Incas.

The emergence of Europe

Conditions for the success of Europe

The first agricultural empires depended heavily on their environment. Their output was limited and they were to thank you for natural disasters which, in turn, presided over their growth and caused their loss. Around the year one thousand , technological progress and the wealth generated by trade provide a degree of independence, more marked in countries where agriculture is more productive: the China , the India and parts of the world Islamized. An early revival beginning about the year one thousand in the West , which begins, even timidly, to open relations with the East and the Islamic world: the rebirth ottono-Cluny.

Despite its wall , the Chinese will stop advancing Mongol in 1279.

The Chinese , who at that time already has an advanced monetary economy, is the first to break free of past constraints. Its peasantry is free and producing much more than it consumes, it can trade its surplus and participate in economic life. China is now the Eurasian region's most urbanized and most technologically advanced. It is the only producer of cast iron , build suspension bridges and use the piston bellows , the printing and the compass . Several factors have been advanced to explain why, from the ^sixteenth century and especially in 1750 , Europe supersedes other civilizations to become the birthplace of the industrial revolution and world domination.

One of the main causes is undoubtedly the advantage to Europe assimilation techniques dissemination of information : the printing press from the mid- ^fifteenth century ( 1453 ) and the development of newspapers from the ^seventeenth century (Gasetta Italy), followed by a wider distribution during the Enlightenment , with the opening of libraries to the public. We see for example the dissemination of cartographic knowledge (see John Mandeville , Fra Mauro , ...) allowed the great discoveries.

Max Weber puts forward the design Protestant work that would have encouraged Europeans to work harder than other peoples. However, this does not explain the beginnings of the Renaissance in the ^fourteenth and ^fifteenth centuries, since the distinction Catholic / Protestant did not exist at that time.

Another explanation focuses on the socio-economic demographics: Europe - with its clergy unmarried, his emigration colonial , high mortality urban, wars incessant and marriages relatively late - experiencing a growth rate of its population much smaller than that Asian societies. Labor is scarce, we look for technologies that save. Is the case with wheels and windmills to water, spinning wheel and loom , the steam engine and navigation. It was also suggested that the European institutions - including the right to property and free markets - were higher than those of other cultures, but this idea has been challenged by scholars such as Kenneth Pomeranz .

Bible of Gutenberg , the symbol of the Renaissance and of humanism.

The geography of Europe has of course played an important role in its history . The Middle East , the China and India are all surrounded by three mountains which, when completed, lead on relatively flat. By contrast, the European terrain, criss-crossed by mountain ranges and dotted seas, offers some protection against it was beneficial to the invaders, at least during this period. Indeed, before the advent of firearms , Eurasia lived under the threat of riders from the frozen steppes of Central Asia. Militarily superior to the agricultural population living on the periphery of the continent, these nomads could hardly be arrested when they unfurled the plains of northern India or China in the valleys. The golden age of Islam also took effect with the bag of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 , and India as China suffered periodic invasions. Europe, she, and especially Western Europe, was less prone to this threat.

Differences geopolitical need much to the geography. During much of their history, India , the China and the Middle East are unified entities, dependent on a single power with territorial expansion does not end as the country's geographical borders, mountains or desert. In 1600 , the Ottoman Empire controlled almost the entire Middle East, the Ming , China, the Mughal Empire , India. Europe, by contrast, is always divided into multiple states more or less aggressive and, with the notable exception of the Roman empire , empires pan-European pretensions to disintegrate shortly after their formation. Paradoxically this fierce competition between rival states which will be a source of Europe's success, while in other regions will be favored stability over growth, as illustrated by the Hai jin Ming will block the rise in power of China as a maritime power. In a non-unified Europe, such a ban would have been doomed to failure and any State respecting it would have been rapidly outpaced by rivals.

Another factor geographically to the growing power of Europe is the Mediterranean which, for millennia, served as a bridge between peoples and conveyed goods, people, ideas and inventions.

The importance of climate , then, should not be neglected tropical countries are constantly exposed to pests and diseases of all kinds, undermining the health of humans, animals and plants, and slowing the progress.

The second half of the ^nineteenth century and early ^twentieth saw the culmination of technical applications of science, and the continuation of scientific discoveries.

Domination of Europe's economic

Reconstruction of the Santa Maria , one of the caravels of Columbus.

In XIV ^century , the Renaissance began in Europe. Although we should have asked if this profusion of art and humanism was of any use to science fact remains that this period allows the synthesis of many Arab and European knowledge whose best example is perhaps the caravel , which combined the lateen Arabic and three-masted square- European, is the first ship capable of crossing the Atlantic. Combined with significant innovations in navigation , the caravel allows Columbus to connect the Afro-Eurasia and America in 1492.

There is then one encounters the most unbalanced of civilizations in history. The Europeans brought with them diseases to which the natives have ever faced and a frightful proportion of them, perhaps over 90% die during epidemics in series. The Europeans also have horses , of steel and guns that allow them to submit empires Aztec and Inca and other North American cultures.

It then starts to strip the region and its people of their wealth for shipment to Europe. Meanwhile, European settlers arriving in large numbers, colonies requiring labor-intensive, it imports thousands of enslaved Africans who are soon subclass racially defined. In West Africa, several coastal states thrive by exploiting the peoples of the interior.

Through his leadership, the European maritime expansion is that countries with Atlantic coast: the Portugal and Spain , as precursors, the UK , the France and the Netherlands later. Culminating in the Napoleonic Wars , a series of conflicts erupted between the ^seventeenth and ^eighteenth centuries , after which the British asserted world power and an empire waist, which in its heyday, controls about one quarter Land of the globe and on which, they say, "the sun never sets. "

Column of slaves in Africa, West.

Meanwhile, the Ming dynasty was interrupted travel of Admiral Zheng He . A commercial revolution - sometimes described as "embryonic capitalism" - takes place in China but ended in failure. The Ming are eventually supplanted by the Manchu Qing dynasty initially experiencing a period of calm and prosperity but become increasingly prey to Western appetites.

Having invaded the Americas, Europeans are turning to Asia soon. In the early ^nineteenth century , Britain controlled the Indian subcontinent , Egypt and the Malay Peninsula , France takes over the Indochina and the Netherlands from the East Indies. Britain also holds several areas Neolithic populations - including the Australia , the New Zealand and South Africa - where many settlers emigrated. In the late ^nineteenth century , Europeans share the last African territories without supervision.

This period in Europe saw the Age of Reason lead to the Scientific Revolution. This opens the way for the Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the early ^nineteenth century. The advent of the factory , the mass production and mechanization , which can produce faster and with a reduced workforce, then disrupts the economy worldwide. The Age of Reason also announces the birth of democracy modern revolutions of the American and French from the late ^eighteenth century. This concept of democracy will grow and exert a major influence on the course of world events and the quality of life of many inhabitants of the planet. The Industrial Revolution spends the advent of railway and steamship and made the coal the spring of the world economy, resulting in a tenfold increase in the rate of pollution and damage caused to the environment.

Industrial Revolution
She experienced a significant increase in the United Kingdom, and condenses the metropolis of London significantly. (Image: Carnegie metallurgical plants in the Ohio .)

The ^twentieth century and the advent of technology

The ^twentieth century saw a reversal of the global order. The power of Europe is decreasing, partly because of the destruction caused by the first and second world wars and the expenses they generate. Meanwhile, the United States and the Soviet Union to develop superpowers. The United Nations was created to prevent wars between nations , it does not always objective, far from it. The fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s , made the U.S. the only superpower in the world and some speak of superpower .

The twentieth ^century also saw the emergence of powerful ideologies, not religious. It is primarily the communism that the momentum of his victory in 1917 in the Soviet Union, won the Eastern Europe after 1945 , China in 1949 and then to other nations of the Third World over the years 1950 and 1960. The 1920's saw the military dictatorships take control of Germany , of Italy , from Japan and the Spanish.

These changes occur against a backdrop of war as a historically unprecedented in scale than in the devastation they cause. The First World War swept many European monarchies and weakens France and Britain , while the second kills most European military dictatorships and spends the advance of communism. For forty years the United States, the Soviet Union and their respective allies live in a climate of Cold War dominated by the specter of annihilation nuclear. The Soviet Union imploded in the 1990s and some former republics choose to follow Russia in a community of states , while others prefer to turn to Western Europe.

During the ^twentieth century, tremendous technological advances are made and the level and life expectancy of most humans are increasing. The world economy now relies more on coal but the oil and new modes of transportation and communication link increasingly global community. Problems environmental worsen continuously, even if the pollution is less urban today than coal.

During the second half of the twentieth ^century, the birth of what is called the Age of Information and globalization lead to a dramatic increase in cultural exchanges and trade globally. The science made great progress in the areas of the infinitely great - the space exploration is now the confines of the solar system - and the infinitely small, revealing the mysteries of DNA and to sequence the genome human with all perspectives medical it suggests. The number of scientific papers published annually now considerably exceeds the sum of all those issued before 1900 and this number doubles every two years. The rate of literacy worldwide is constantly increasing while the labor required to produce food, it, down .

The negative counterpart of these advances is the real possibility of global annihilation caused by the nuclear proliferation , the greenhouse or other environmental consequences of the use of fossil fuels , international conflicts due to scarcity of natural resources such the consequences of the geopolitics of oil.

See also

Notes

Bibliography

• Rene Grousset, World History - Volume I: Beginnings to Islam, Gallimard, Coll. Encyclopedia de la Pleiade, Paris, 1956 ( ISBN 2070104109 )
• Rene Grousset, World History - Volume II: From Islam to the Reformation, Gallimard, Coll. Encyclopedia de la Pleiade, Paris, 1957 ( ISBN 2070104117 )
• Rene Grousset, World History - Volume III: From the Reformation to the Present, Gallimard, Coll. Encyclopedia de la Pleiade, Paris, 1958 ( ISBN 2070104125 )
• Arnold Toynbee, History, Payot, Paris, 1996 ( ISBN 2228889849 )
• Arnold Toynbee, the great adventure of mankind, Payot, Paris, 1994 ( ISBN 2228888419 )
• Roland Breton, Geography of Civilizations, PUF, coll. What do I know? No. 2317 ^2nd ed., Paris, 1991 ( a href = "Sp% C3% A9cial: Ouvrages_de_r% C3% A9f% C3% A9rence/2130437079" class = "mw-internal-magiclink isbn"> ISBN 2130437079)
• Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean Space and History, Flammarion, Coll. Field No. 156, Paris, 1985 ( ISBN 2080811568 )
• Fernand Braudel, Grammaire des Civilisations, Flammarion, Coll. Field No. 285, Paris, 1993 ( ISBN 2080812858 )
• Jean-Claude Barreau, A world history from prehistory to today , the paperback, Paris, 2007 ( ISBN 9782253118602 )
• (In) JM Roberts, The New Penguin History of the World, Penguin Books, London, 2004 ( ISBN 0141007230 )
• (In) Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies, WW Norton & Company, New York, 1999 ( ISBN 0-393-31755-2 ) / French Version ( ISBN 2070753514 )
• Jared Diamond, Collapse. How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed , Gallimard, Paris, 2006 ( ISBN 2-07-077672-7 ) / (English Collapse, How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, 2004 ( ISBN 0140279512 )
• William McGaughey, Five Epochs of Civilization, Thistlerose, Minneapolis, 2000 (ISBN 9605630-3-2)

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