University

Antiquity

Representation of the Academy of Plato.

Before discussing the history of universities, we must remember that the word "university" is based on Western civilization that created from the eleventh century to describe an organization of the universality of college students. The academies Greek as Plato's Academy and other organizations of higher education in China as the Nanjing University in India with the University of Nalanda , in Iran with the Academy Gundishapur , in Japan with the Ashikaga Gakko in Ifriqiya with the madrasah of Zaytuna or the Medical School of Salerno preceded the appearance of some Western universities nearly a millennium. However, these different organizations did not claim the compilation and preparation of all knowledge, but only their education, which so distinguished them from the university.

Eleventh century: The Birth of Western Universities

Class at the university around 1350.

In 1088, master grammarians, logic and rhetoric are interested in compiling the study and transmission of knowledge of legal knowledge at the time. In so doing, they founded the University of Bologna, known as the Alma Mater Studiorum . In 1150 students from all different community (universitas) colleges in the left bank of Paris are grouped within the University of Paris. These schools represent the different faculties that comprise the university. English students expelled from Paris in 1166 founded the University of Oxford. In 1289, the papal bull of Pope Nicolas Quia Sapientia IV introduces the first faculty of medicine at Montpellier, where the teaching of medicine was already certified in 1150. In the thirteenth century, organized around the disciplines taught the "four powers" such as the arts, medicine, law and theology. At that time the universities contribute to the renewal of knowledge, which are closely related to the church catholic. In this context, it is not surprising that the theology and canon law carve the lion's share. Students come from afar to receive university education. The "mechanical arts" and "science-profit" are not addressed, victims of contempt of manual labor and financial gain that the nobles and the clergy showed at the time. The teaching was based on reference texts ("authorities"). The teaching consisted of lectio (reading) and disputation ("contestation"), a kind of adversarial, largely based on the syllogism. Universities are rapidly acquiring libraries to overcome the scarcity of specimens available for readings.

the fifteenth to the eighteenth century: State control of universities

The University of Lausanne was founded in 1537

From the fifteenth century new universities are created at a rapid pace in Europe but also in Latin America and in North America. Religious particularities that appear in Europe ( Anglican church , Protestantism ) impact the subjects taught and the methods of teaching. More national political structures in France , in Germany or England for example, are gradually taking control of universities, which then lose autonomy (at least relative to the state). These trends agree to end the peregrinatio academica and reduces "the social spectrum" of students in universities.

Also, it is not surprising that full Renaissance , academic institutions are widely contested and criticized, both on their operation as their roles. The Enlightenment raises the question of the usefulness of teaching. The question is whether the university aims to produce skills that benefit all or whether it should provide the holders of diplomas delivered a high social rank. One regrets the lack of student attendance as well as teachers, we suspect the quality and value of diplomas awarded; there is fraud and convenience ...

nineteenth century: Universities under the leadership of Lights

The Humboldt University in 1850.

The liberal currents that run deep in Europe's lead reform. During the French Revolution , the abolition of the universities of the Old Regime , will for a time the closure of universities. Domination Napoleonic over a large part of the old continent will have profound consequences for Western universities. "Empire" is receiving renewed interest in science and technology, poorly represented in universities. Thus were created the great schools ( cole Polytechnique , or the Ecole Normale Superieure in France). Meanwhile, the Emperor reorganizes the university system and explicitly names the teachers. The fragmentation of knowledge, taught in separate schools, is sometimes seen as a stalemate in which France committed while ...

It was also at this time that begins (in Germany) education of new disciplines such as philology, mathematics and physics. Germany through the Berlin University founded by Wilhelm von Humboldt promotes a new model for university: a model where it is no longer thought of as the division of a philosophy in specialized fields, but as the collection Universal knowledge and research .

U.S. university system also reinvents itself and becomes deeply different from that inherited from the time the English colonies. The rapid development of the country and support a large influx of mass higher education dynamic and heterogeneous. Although not explicit, it will follow essentially the German model, thinking the university as a place of confrontation of all knowledge.

the University of Tokyo opened in 1877 on the Western model following the teachings of the Iwakura Mission

The model of the Western university is spreading to East Asia by several biases. The state powers are one of these vectors. The Japanese imperial model thus recovered following the teachings of the Iwakura mission in 1871 , and opened the Imperial University in 1877 , an institution that serves as a model for other universities started later by the Japanese Imperial. In China , the Peking University was established by the empire following the Hundred Days Reform in 1898 , and Korea , the Korea University was founded in 1905 by a relative of the royal family. The model is also distributed through western missionaries in the areas that open institutions such as the Aurora University to open Shanghai in 1903 by a Catholic priest, the Yonsei University opened by a doctor Presbyterians in Seoul in 1885 , or the Rikkyo University opened at Tokyo in 1874 by a missionary of the Episcopal Church USA. Finally, other existing facilities being modernized by adopting the model of the Western university, such as the Keio University opened at Tokyo in 1858 and opened his first degree in 1890.

the twentieth century to today: The modern university

In Europe cons, social inequalities as much as the content taught continue to shape the university system, which also remains highly concentrated on a few prestigious organizations. In France, 43% of students are concentrated in Paris in 1914. England Oxford and Cambridge remain predominant until the mid-twentieth century. In Germany, the arrival of authoritarian causes a serious crisis of the "German model". In the "up to no higher education by the Nazi regime," one third of teachers is affected by the purge, that it will strengthen particularly American universities, and many of those who remain lost honor and probity.

Exterior Lassonde Pavilion, University of Montreal.

It is also in the twentieth century model of higher education in universities is spreading around the world (Asia, Africa). At the end of World War II, academic development is seen as one of the main criteria of political influence, economic, cultural and civilized countries (particularly during the Cold War). At the dawn of the twenty-first century is regarded by economists as a benchmark for the economic stability of a country.

Article 13 of International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted in New York December 16, 1966 by the UN General Assembly states: "Higher education must be accessible to all equally, in basis of capacity by every appropriate means and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education ".

Structure and status of universities

The word university comes from the Latin Universitas magistrorum and scholarium which originally designated the corporation of teachers and students in the same city. Universities are now divided into academic departments, schools or faculties (known in France nowadays Units Training and Research). In the U.S. some schools that would be classified, France, under the name Great schools are integrated with universities. For example, a business school such as Harvard Business School is the equivalent of a faculty of the University of Harvard. This leads Jacques Mistral to see Harvard as a federation of high schools ( Harvard Law School , John F Kennedy School of Government, Harvard Medical School, Harvard School of Public Health, Graduate School of Design, etc..). A university can be:

• be public , ie controlled and funded by a public system, widely practiced in France for example where higher education remains essentially the domain of the State, the latter giving them some autonomy. Ironically the State in France do not entrust the training of its staff in universities, but since the mid-eighteenth ^century to the major administrative schools.

• or private. It was this form that the first universities were created. The system remains widespread in some countries including the United States of America. In this country, many universities belong to foundations, associations or congregations - they say they are "non profit" in the sense that if they do not have possession of a local or state, But their purpose is not to make profit. There may also universities seeking to make profits.

Universities and Economic Growth

Universities and more broadly all institutions of higher education , are nowadays regarded by economists as potential drivers of economic growth ( endogenous growth theory ). Recent studies ^{Approach to the} technological frontier and changes in universities

In a 2004 study entitled "Education and Economic Growth," by Philippe Aghion and Elie Cohen shows that depending on whether the country is far or close the "technological frontier" that is to say, nowadays, technological level of the United States, requirements vary from education system. In the first case, the country is catching up, as was France after the Second World War. What matters then is primarily the secondary. Instead as soon as we approach the technological frontier, tertiary education, including universities, becomes much more important. Indeed, while the country is not in the imitation, but in the creation, in the invention of products and services of tomorrow. Hence the importance for countries such as France, which approach the technological frontier to have world-class universities more oriented towards research and creativity. This also sometimes by organizational changes designed to make universities more responsive and closer economic actors. Nowadays the development of new information technologies and communication (NTIC) reinforces this trait.

Universities and competence center

Silicon Valley (Valley of Silicon )

For Christian Blanc "The economy is based on the exchange of two types of knowledge: first knowledge formalized, codified, written, that is to say information and also know implied, which can use information to judge the quality of the application to a practical problem, or knowledge. Knowledge is necessary for creation. " But if information flows globally, knowledge as defined above remains more localized. It's the idea behind the American term "cluster" as Porter has defined as "a group of companies and institutions sharing the same field of expertise, geographically close, interconnected and complementary. " Among the famous examples of cluster , it is possible to include the Silicon Valley around the Stanford University. Universities play in the case of clusters in France called cluster a key role because it is on them that is largely innovation capabilities. For White for a cluster to be effective, requires that drivers of competitiveness are in the hands of authorities who manage the local boundaries, as is the case in Catalonia, Spain for example and that universities themselves have a strong autonomy, which enable them to "assume important responsibilities" . So today in developed countries ( U.S. , UK , Germany , France , Italy , Spain , ...), as indeed in others (the India around Bangalore , ...) the relationship between high schools or universities, centers of research and development , and companies tend to be organized in employment areas territorial , as part of competence centers and projects of territorial economic intelligence.

Universities in the world

Since the late twentieth century universities are identified as key elements of state growth. On the pulse of the American model, most of the world are now investing in the development and enhancement of its universities.

United States

Harvard Yard in Cambridge , MA , USA

The campus of Dartmouth College

The university system in the United States is nowadays regarded as very good, even as the world's first, so much so that often serves as a reference. The study from the University of Shanghai from 2004 up seventeen universities in the United States in the first twenty, Harvard mentioned first .

The American university system has grown significantly in the late ^nineteenth century with the creation of many universities, some of which are now very well known: Yale University (1701), Stanford University (1891) ( California ), Johns Hopkins (1876), Cornell University (1865), University of Chicago (1892), etc.. These universities will adopt in part the German model and will combine teaching and research. Moreover, it will be introduced soon curricula that in Europe "because of prejudices inherited from the pre-capitalist society, are not worthy of the university" . Thus, finance and trade will be taught in 1881 with the creation of the Wharton School of Finance at the University of Pennsylvania. In France, a leading business schools will also be based at that time ( CET founded in 1881) but will remain outside the fold of universities. The strength of the university executive is a distinctive feature of the American system compared to the Germanic and French models .

The American system is very diverse. Next to private non-profit very prestigious as Stanford and Harvard universities found belonging to the States, some of which are also known as the University of Berkeley.

In public or private universities, basic studies (undergraduate) last four years and lead to the Bachelor Degree. They may be followed by a Master's Degree in one year or a PhD in general in three years. Besides the universities there are community colleges that provide training in two years. Thereupon, the student may stop the study or enter a university.

If the term "college" is usually reserved for short course, institutions like Boston College or Dartmouth College while calling itself for historical reasons are real college universities. The "Basic Carnegie Classification" distinguishes universities with doctoral programs (Doctorate-granting Universities (I)) colleges and universities granting master's mostly (Master's Colleagues (IIA)), colleges up to the license ( Baccalaureate Colleges (IIB)) and associated colleges (Associate's Colleges (III)).

The university enrollment depends on the results achieved during the last three years of high school and scores on tests: the SAT (Standardized Aptitude Test) and AP (Advanced Investments) .

The most prestigious U.S. universities are grouped in the " Ivy League ".

Over three-quarters of American students go to public universities.

China

Prospective students must pass a national competition for university entrance, the gaokao. In June 2009, there were 6.3 million seats in first year, all higher education institutions alike . Many young Chinese are studying abroad, including the United States

European Union

In a study in September 2007, the Bruegel Institute tried to analyze why students drop out of the main European higher education institutions compared to their counterparts in the United States. Two facts have been highlighted: lower investment 1.3% of GDP against 3.3% of GDP in the U.S., less autonomy of universities. The authors particularly insist on this point and show that both the U.S. and Europe is a key element that positively affects the financial contributions made to universities .

France

The Sorbonne, Paris, ^seventeenth century

The universities were abolished by the Revolution. Under the Empire was established in 1808 an imperial university, some features remain: strong centralization and strict disciplinary division into faculties. These features will be mitigated first in 1893 by the creation of universities by city then by Faure Law of 1968. Despite all the division remains strong and disciplinary autonomy rather limited

In 1875, the passage of the law on freedom of higher education allows the creation of five Catholic universities in Paris, Angers, Lille, Lyon and Toulouse. Shortly after the Act of March 18, 1880 restored the monopoly of university graduation and does not exist since public universities in France.

In 1938, universities in France had 60,000 students, this figure rises to 300,000 in 1968 to 1,515,000 in the 2001-2002 school year . In early 2000, about 500,000 students attended a course of letters and humanities, 350, 000 in law and economics, just over 200 000 Science and 140 000 in the health sector . The question of why so many students go to chains with few direct opportunities has puzzled researchers. For Fave-Bonnet (1997), it would be a fallback position that suffered most due to Alain Renaut instead, it would indicate a demand for general education. Jacques Mistral to satisfy this appli advocates of Colleges university where students could "consolidate the fruits of secondary education", "learn the language and codes of social life," "satisfying curiosity customizable" gradually deepen discipline "and thereby initiate their specialization.

In their report to the CAE (Council of Economic Analysis), Philippe Aghion and Elie Cohen felt that if the French universities and higher education more generally in France were adapted to an economy catching up, they were much less economy close to the "technological frontier". For French universities can play their full role in this situation, it would take to these authors had invested 2.3% of GDP (1.1% in public investment and 1.2% in private equity) in this area against 1.1% in France (1% public , 0.1% private). In their report Philippe Aghion & Elie Cohen argued for an incremental approach that is to say, for a series of small-scale but likely to put actors in movement and ability to take ownership of the reforms. In contrast, economists like Jean-Herve Lorenzi and Michel Mougeot believe the incremental approach would not live up to the challenges . Jean Tirole in favor of autonomy for universities and an appeal to a share of private funding so that students in French universities receive a quality education and that France has an online search with its potential.

United Kingdom

Coat of arms of the University of Oxford

If the two most famous universities are also the most ancient Oxford and Cambridge in the late nineteenth century witnessed the creation of many institutions: University of Manchester (1851), University of Aberystwyth (1874) in Wales , London School of Economics (1895) etc. .. In 1861 Oxford and Cambridge received 2400 students, this figure rose to 5,881 in 1901 to over 10 000 in 1931 . Currently these two universities together hold about 35 000 students. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge each elect one member of the House of Commons until the end of the Second World War. William Ewart Gladstone has long been elected by the University of Oxford. He is also in the early 1850s, carried out a reform of the university at the same time he did a lot for the positions in the British public are filled by competition.

In the 1920s, the Balliol College at Oxford in order to better train those who may undertake a public career by giving them an ability to reflect both strong and established an interdisciplinary program originally called "high modernism" and Philosophy Politics and Economy.

International rankings of universities and their problems

There are several classifications of colleges including the ranking of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, ranking in the Times Higher Education, the CHE University Ranking of Centrum fr Hochschulentwicklung, and for business schools, ranking of Financial Times which is beyond the scope of this article.

If these rankings are variously valued - those who support it see them as "a key element of recognition and motivation for both teachers and students" - we must note that they address issues of high different.

The best known, the Shanghai ranking, is particularly oriented towards research that China regards as vital to its future. Emphasis is also put it on scientific publications, the number of Nobel laureates, the budget devoted to research and the number of times that university researchers are cited by their peers in scientific journals .

The Times Higher Education takes into account five criteria. Both are also present in the Shanghai ranking, the number of articles in Nature and Science, the frequency of citations. Three are different: the views of employers and academics, the number of teachers and students and the teacher / student ratio

Ranking German (CHE University Ranking) is more complex. It is not so much to indicate that rank universities by discipline what are the best universities . HEC is part of the consortium of European institutions (Cherp Network) commissioned by the European Commission to study the feasibility of a "multidimensional ranking universities in Europe and the world"

Some university creation date

Western Europe

Americas

NB: Incomplete list

North Africa and Middle East

271 : The founding of the academy Gundishapur brand taking the torch through the Persian Empire.

737 : Foundation of the Zaytuna University in Tunis, the first university in the Muslim world.

832 : The Caliph Abbasid Harun al-Rashid founded houses of wisdom.

859 : Foundation of the University Quaraouiyine in Fez , Morocco , the first university in the Arab and Islamic world.

970 : Foundation of the al-Azhar University in Cairo. This period corresponds to the rise of Islamic science and technology.

1974 : Founding of the University of Science and Technology Houari Boumediene , Algiers.

East

-2257 to -2208 : During Yu , the first institutions are based in China.

258 : Foundation of Nanjing University , an institution of higher education the oldest in the world.

1877 : Founding of the University of Tokyo , the first Japanese imperial university

1895 : Founding of the University Peiyang ( Tianjin University ) in Tianjin , the first university in modern Chinese.

Lists of universities

Aerial View ( 2009 ) of the Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL) , which forms with the University of Lausanne (UNIL) a large campus near Lake Geneva

In Europe

Germany , Belgium , France , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , Netherlands , Poland , Portugal , Romania , United Kingdom , Switzerland , Czech Republic

Africa

Algeria , Cameroon , Morocco

America

Canada including Quebec , the United States , Peru , Mexico

Asia

China , Korea , India , Japan , Lebanon , Viet Nam

National rankings

• Canada: Top of Maclean's
• France: Top of the Nouvel Observateur

References