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Trinity Christian

Trinity Christian in the mainstream of Christianity , refers to God , one in three hypostasis , Father, Son and Holy Spirit, equal and participating in the same species ( consubstantiality or homoousia).

The statement of the dogma of the Trinity appears as the consequence of what is said of the mystery of God in the Scriptures : In the Old Testament , God revealed his existence and uniqueness, in the New Testament were affirmed the divinity of Jesus Christ and the personal character of the Holy Spirit.

  • The Son , the Word or the Word of God ( Jesus Christ ), identified as one who was with God ( Jn 1: 1). He is the one through whom the Father created heaven and earth and all things (compare ( Col 1: 15-16) ( 1 Hey 10) Vocabulary Trinitarian

    The word "Trinity" is not in the vocabulary of New Testament , nor, consequently, the kerygma of the original early Christian community. It is a summary of a theological nature, to serve the central dogma of Christian faith. It is the Greek word / Triassic, which means "three" on the three divine Persons, for the first time (to 180) in the writings of Theophilus of Antioch (To Autolycus, II, 15), which in turn same does not claim to be the inventor of the word in this sense is then used by Hippolytus of Rome (Against NOET , 14). That Tertullian (c. 155 - c. 222) who introduced the term in the lexicon Trinitas theological Latin (Against Praxeas). Trias is not employed in the councils of Nicaea , Constantinople I, Chalcedon , the word was imposed with Athanasius of Alexandria , God considered in His eternity, before the incarnation , and regardless of the incarnation. In this case, the term "father" can not mean, as is the case in the writings of the New Testament , God altogether. It comes to signify one who in God is the father of her own Logos, who is his son! "

    Tertullian also used the word substantia, the Greek equivalent / ousia (essence "," substance "," being ") and persona means" mask actor "," role "and" personality "and corresponds to the Greek / prosopon. The word / upostasis, "hypostasis", meaning "base" or "unfounded" and "matter", "substance" was used at the Council of Nicaea interchangeably with ousia. Following Basil of Caesarea , prevail the formula "one ousia in three hypostasis."

    The doctrine of the Trinity

    The Bible , as specified by the Protestant theologian Louis Berkhof, "never deals with the doctrine of the Trinity as an abstract truth, but reveals the trinitarian life in its various relationships as a living reality in the report, in general, with the works of creation and providence, and in particular with the work of redemption. His revelation most fundamental is given by the facts rather than by words. And this revelation becomes clear gradually as the redemptive work of God is more clearly revealed, as the incarnation of the Son and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit . "

    However, reference books give the Trinity a different origin. In his Universal Dictionary, Maurice Lachtre wrote: "The Platonic trinity, which itself was basically a kind of arrangement, the new provision of trinities oldest of the peoples who had preceded us appears to be the trinity philosophical, rational, that is to say the trinity of attributes that gave birth to the triplicity of hypostasis or divine persons of the Christian Churches (...). This conception of the divine Trinity Greek philosopher "

    In the Torah

    "From the beginning of the Bible , God appears as a mysterious being that does not exclude a plurality noted by some number of commentators (including later the Fathers of the Church " New Testament

    The Trinity and the four evangelists

    It is in the New Testament we find the essence of the revelation of a God who is Trinity. The word is not there, but three people are clearly named, and there appear to act, both in their distinction and their unity.

    According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica: "Neither the word Trinity nor the explicit doctrine of the Trinity appear in the New Testament Jesus and his disciples did not intend to contradict the Shema

  • "The Word was a divine being. "
  • and others: John 1:1

According to these translations, the word is not God himself, but "a divine being" due to its elevated position.

About John 10:30 ( Jn 10: 30) John Calvin (who was Trinitarian) said: "The older doctors have greatly abused this passage to prove that Jesus Christ is the same essence as the Father. For our Lord Jesus is not discussing here the unity of substance, but the agreement or consent he has with his father. "

About John 8:58, this is what one learns in a few reference books:

  • G. Winer says: "Sometimes this also includes a past (Mdv. 108), that is to say when the verb expresses a state that has started such earlier time but which is still growing - a state in its duration, as in John xv. 27 ' '
  • J. Moulton, N. Turner added: "This indicates that the continuation of a share during the past and until we speak is almost a perfective verb form, the only difference is that the action is conceived as still being (...). Is often found in the N

Seeking to identify Jesus to God Almighty, some say (ego eimi) is the equivalent of the Hebrew expression 'ani hu': "I am he," that is used by God. However, the same Hebrew term is also used by humans in 1Ch 9:17 p.m. ( 1Ch 21 17).

Paul of Tarsus , in his epistles , says that Jesus is Lord, , Kyrios, word used for God in the Septuagint , where he translated the Tetragrammaton , YHWH , and the New Testament (eg. Mk 12 11, citing Ps 118 22; Jn 12: 37-38 which incorporates Is 53 1), and therefore he is God. He specifically called God (, Theos) repeatedly ( Rm 9 5; Tt 2 13) and Son of God ( Rom 1 3, Rm 5.10, Ga 2 20; Col 1: 3, Col 1 13; etc.). Paul often uses the same Trinitarian formulas (cf. 2 Cor 13 13 etc..) combining the three divine persons.

Likewise the Epistle to the Hebrews develops a Christology already far advanced. "But Statement of Doctrine

The "shield" or "crest" of the Trinity, a traditional symbol in Western Christianity.
"I give you but one divinity and power, existing one in three, and containing the three in a distinct manner. "( Gregory Nazianzen , Speech, 40, 41)

"The Trinity is the mystery of one God in three persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, recognized as a distinct unit of one nature or essence or substance "Regarding proposals that includes the doctrine of the Trinity, Marie-Joseph Nicolas says, "it would take to reconcile them understand how to realize God 's concept of Father, Son, Spirit, relationship, Word, Love, Person, and even being. We know that only created things we call these names are analogies for what is done to the Infinite in God . "

The Catechism of the Catholic Church , published in 1992, said:

"The revealed truth of Holy Trinity was from the beginning to the root of the living faith of the Church, primarily through baptism. It finds its expression in the rule of baptismal faith, formulated in preaching, catechesis and prayer of the Church. Such formulations are already in the apostolic writings, and this greeting, taken in the Eucharistic liturgy of the Roman rite : "The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God the Father and the communion of the Holy Spirit be with you all " . "
"During the first centuries the Church has sought to formulate more explicitly Trinitarian faith, both to deepen his own understanding of faith and to defend it against the errors that were deforming it. This was the work of the early councils, aided by the theological work of the Church Fathers and sustained by a sense of the faith of Christian people. For the formulation of the dogma of the Trinity, the Church had to develop a terminology with notions of philosophical origin: "substance", "person" or " hypostasis "," relationship ", etc.. In doing so, she did not submit the faith to human wisdom, but gave a new meaning to these words unheard called to serve now as an ineffable mystery, "infinitely beyond all that we can design the measurement human. " "
"The Church uses the term" substance "(rendered also at times by" essence "or" nature ") to designate the divine being in its unity, the term" person "or" hypostasis "to designate the Father, Son and the Holy Spirit in the real distinction between them, the term "relationship" to refer to the fact that their distinction lies in reference to each other.

The Trinity is One. We do not confess three Gods but one God in three hypostasis "consubstantial Trinity." The divine persons do not share the one divinity but each of them is God whole: "The Father is that even the Son is, that even the Son is the Father, the Father and the Son that even what the Holy Spirit is to say, one God in nature. " "Each of the persons is that reality is to say the substance, essence or divine nature."

The divine persons are really distinct from each other. "God is one but not solitary." Father, Son, Holy Spirit, are not simply names designating modalities of the divine being, for they are really distinct from one another: "He who the Son is the Father, and he who is the Father n is not the Son nor the Holy Spirit is the one who is the Father or the Son. " They are distinct from each other by their relations of origin "is the Father who generates, the Son who is begotten, the Holy Spirit who proceeds." The divine Unity is Triune. "
"The divine persons are related to each other. Because it does not divide the divine unity, the real distinction between persons resides solely in the relationships which relate to each other: "In the names of related persons, the Father is referred to the Son, the Son to Father, the Holy Spirit to both when it comes to these three persons in view of the relationship, however it is believed in one nature or substance. " Indeed, "all is one This doctrine includes the following statements:
a) The Divine Being is composed of a single indivisible essence (ousia, essentia).
b) In this divine being unique, there are three people or individual lives: Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
c) The entire essence of God belongs equally to each of the three.
d) The existence and operation mode of the three persons of the divine Being is marked by a specific order and defined.
e) The three persons are distinguished by personal attributes.
f) The Church confesses the Trinity is a mystery which man can understand.

Two errors to avoid: tritheism (three separate beings), which is contrary to the strict monotheism which invokes the Hebrew Christianity , and modalism (three terms of one being visible), incompatible with the existence of Father, son and the Holy Spirit as distinct persons.

Historical Theology

Period antnicenne

The early church was firmly maintained the apostolic faith, as is evident from the writings of the Church Fathers : Ignatius of Antioch , Polycarp of Smyrna , Clement of Alexandria , Justin Martyr , Tertullian , and even Novatian ; but especially Irenaeus of Lyons , whose formula is extracted from the Demonstration of the apostolic preaching, 3:

"We received the baptism for the remission of sins in the name of God the father and the name of Jesus Christ the son of God incarnate and died and rose, and the Holy Spirit of God."

This does not mean that the three are one! This idea of the Trinity is truly born until very late, and only 325 at the Council of Nicaea he had to debate and make it a dogma ... In the history of the Church, that people were opposed to this idea!

A baptismal symbol of the third century , in Greek , reads:

"I believe in God the Father Almighty and in Christ Jesus, her son, her only our Lord, begotten of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Maria, who under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, was buried and the third day rose from the dead, who ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father, whence he shall come to judge the living and the dead. And in the Holy Spirit, the holy Church, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the flesh, eternal life "

However the design of a triune God had to defend itself against deviations, not only from the sects, Manichaeism , Marcionism , Gnosticism , but of Catholic thinkers. Were the main modalism (theory Sabellius ) which was just divine persons terms, or representations, the one divine essence and subordinationism who saw the Son and the Spirit of persons below the Father.

Arius , presbyter of Alexandria from the early fourth century , bore the subordinationism at its height in asserting that the Son was a simple creature, who had a beginning in time.

The First Council of Nicaea

Main article: First Council of Nicaea.

I. The ecumenical council met at Nicaea in 325 to decide about the Arianism. The main personalities involved in this debate were present, including Arius , Eusebius of Nicomedia in his favor, Eusebius of Caesarea , moderate, Alexander of Alexandria (accompanied by Athanasius of Alexandria as a secretary) who opposed him, Just as an uncompromising, a href = "Eustathe_d 27Antioche%" title = "Eustathius of Antioch"> Eustathius of Antioch, and Marcellus of Ancyra. Almost unanimously voted to condemn the Arian thesis and write a symbol saying that the Son is consubstantial (homoousios) with the Father, that is to say the same nature as himself.

The First Council of Constantinople

John Chrysostom and Gregory Nazianzen.

The council met in Constantinople in 381 , second ecumenical council attended by Basil of Caesarea , Gregory of Nyssa , Peter of Sebaste , Gregory of Nazianzen , Amphilochius of Iconium , Meletius , Cyril of Jerusalem , Diodorus of Tarsus , confirmed the Council of Nicaea and proclaimed the divinity of the Holy Spirit.

It comes from the symbol known as the Nicene-Constantinople, used until today in the liturgy both Greek and Latin.

This symbol has been assigned to the Fathers who attended the council, but they used a pre-existing text of unknown origin (assuming it was due to Epiphanius of Salamis is no longer held).

Augustine of Hippo

In De Trinitate, Augustine of Hippo shows the inadequacy of language and our representations on the Trinity (ch. V, 9, 10, VII, 6, 11, XV, 22, 42).

"But is he to define what a divine person, any human language suddenly becomes helpless. So we say three people, less to say something than not to keep silence. "

- Trin. V, 9, 10

The Council of Ephesus

The third ecumenical council, which was opened in 431 by Cyril of Alexandria to Ephesus , referred to "the faith of Nicaea" in refusing to modify the symbol, condemned Nestorianism and admitted to the Virgin Mary the title "Mother of God" (Theotokos).

The Council of Chalcedon

It was only at the Council of Chalcedon , the fourth ecumenical council in 451 , that the theological vocabulary acquired its full stability, on the Trinitarian mystery. This council, especially Christological (dedicated to the person of the Son), said he had assimilated the notions of substance and Latin person (introduced by Tertullian ), respectively, than those (from the Greek and speculation of a Plotinus ) of essence (ousia) and hypostasis (hupostasis), and Jesus Christ , God made man, unites in one person the two natures "without confusion," "no change", "undivided", "without separation" , that as opposed to monophysitism proclaimed by the monk Eutyches.

The Second Council of Constantinople

Fifth Ecumenical Council, held in 553 , he laid down the doctrine of the Council of Chalcedon in declaring unorthodox three writings representative of the School of Antioch (those of Theodore of Mopsuestia of Theodoret of Cyr and the letter to Maris the Persian of Ibas Edessa: condemnation of so-called Three Chapters).

Major Heresies

Main articles: Arianism , Adoptianism , Apollinarianism , Docetism , Miaphysisme , Modalism , Monophysitism , Monothelitism , Mononergisme , Nestorianism , subordinationism , tritheism

Symbols

Following those of Nicaea and of Constantinople , different symbols (or confessions) came clarify remarkable intelligence that we should have the Trinitarian mystery: the Apostles' Creed , he said of Athanasius , that councils of Toledo.

Nicene-Constantinople :

"We believe in one God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds, God from God, Light from Light, true God of very God, begotten, not made, of same substance as the Father and through whom all things were made, who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit in the virgin Mary and was made man. He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, he suffered and was buried and he rose from the dead the third day according to Scriptures, he ascended into heaven where he sits at the right hand of the Father. From there he will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will never end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, who rules and who gives life, who proceeds from the Father, who spoke by the prophets, who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified, and we believe one Church, holy, catholic and apostolic. We acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins, and we expect the resurrection and the life of the world to come. Amen. "

Extracts of the XI Council of Toledo (675):

"We profess that the Father is neither created nor begotten, but it is unbegotten. It originated in person; him the Son receives his birth and the Holy Spirit's procession. It is itself the source and origin of all deity and is also the father of his own essence and substance of his ineffable, it generated ineffably the Son, and yet he did not bring anything other than what it is itself: God has created God, light, light "
"We affirm that the Son was born of the substance of the Father without having had a beginning, before all ages, and yet it was not done. For the Father has never existed without the Son, nor the Son without the Father ever. However, the Father is not the Son as the Son of the Father, because Father has not received the Son of generation, but the Son has received from the Father. The Son is God from the Father, but is not God the Father from the Son. Father of the Son, not God the Son. This is the Son of the Father and God the Father. But the Son is equal in all things to God the Father, because he never started or stopped born. "
"We also believe that the Holy Spirit, which is the third person in the Trinity, is God, one and equal with the Father and the Son, the same substance and also of the same nature. However, it is neither created nor begotten, but proceeding from one and another, it is the Spirit of both. "

The Filioque

The word Filioque ("and the Son" in Latin) was added to the Nicene-Constantinople in the Church Latin to assert that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.

It was introduced, probably in Spain in the late sixth century , but the proposal was already in Ambrose of Milan , as well as in the Athanasian Creed (whose attribution is uncertain) and was clarified by Augustine Hippo. He was part of Creed Liturgical Roman Following Benedict VII.

Christianity in Greek, it is estimated that the Spirit proceeds from the Father alone, "the Son", which is stated first by Maximus the Confessor , then, clearly, by John of Damascus and then by the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.

The Council of Frankfort in 794 , considers that there is no equivalence between two expressions. It was one of the causes of the schism in 1054 and continues to be a difficulty between the Churches of East and West, despite attempts to compromise as was the case at the Council of Florence in 1439 for which the Filioque was justified but did not require recognition by the Greeks.

At the present time, the popes profess the Creed equally in both forms: with or without the Filioque.

Scholastic Period: Thomas Aquinas

Gentile da Fabriano: Thomas Aquinas

In questions 27 to 43 of the Summa Theologica (called, perhaps improperly, De Deo trino Treaty: the triune God) Thomas Aquinas summed up the Trinitarian faith by asking that one could distinguish:

  • One God , one essence or substance, or nature.
  • Two processions: the generation (the Son) and the spiration (of the Holy Spirit), and two notional acts: the act of knowing who is the Son and the act of intent which is the Spirit.
  • Three persons: Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
  • Four relations: paternity, filiation, active spiration (the Father and the Son in the Spirit) and passive spiration (of the Spirit to the Father and the Son).
  • Five properties: the innascibility (Father's) paternity (the father) descent (the Son), the active spiration (by the Father and the Son); procession passive (the Holy Spirit).

One can also consider that God there are two notional acts: the act of knowing who is the Son and the act of intent which is the Spirit.

With God all things are one if not Opposition relationships. The three persons are acting inseparable outside themselves.

As for ownership, it is to assign only one property (eg creation attributed to the Father) is actually common to the three divine Persons.

Commentary

Keystone representing the Holy Trinity. Donjon du Chteau de Vincennes

According to Thomas Aquinas , the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father immediately, and the Father through the Son mediately. In the divine processions, Son plays somewhat the role of a medium, if the Father is the Beginning or the Origin, while the Holy Spirit is the End.

Also in the works ad extra, the Son, by his incarnation , he holds the rank of a Medium, as it is the only mediator between God and men, between the world created and the uncreated world.

The inner world of God is inherently necessary and absolute. But we are not known as such because it is accessible only indirectly, and by revelation, and thus by grace.

The external works of God are never necessary, but depend on his free initiative and generosity, that his grace. Love is indeed self-diffusive.

Early modern and contemporary

The reform does not undermine the Trinitarian dogma, but the independence vis--vis the authority of the Church promotes personal interpretations in the perspective of theology "humanist" and "liberal." Karl Barth , Karl Rahner In particular, react to restore its rule, one focused on modes of revelation, the other differentiating, only to find they are confused, the Trinity of God (immanent) and that appears to humans ("economic"), it is the same other theologians including Orthodox , the latter emphasizing divine transcendence. For Hans Urs von Balthasar , the whole Trinity is involved in Jesus Christ and the cross makes this analogy that it checks in love and giving. But you do not interrogate the great theologian Rudolph Bultmann: you would probably say something else, and many others among the most eminent Protestant thinkers, even without naming and Theodore Monod Newton ... ...

After Vatican II , a new interest manifested on the theology of the period antnicenne.

Current positions of Churches

Catholic Church and Orthodox Church

In Catholicism , as in the churches of the seven councils , this is one of the doctrines central to Christianity: Caesarius of Arles ( 542 ), a church father , writes in his Expositio symbolic: "The faith of all Christians rests on the Trinity. "

All baptized Christians in those churches and those from the Reformation , are "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit," according to the formula that ends the Gospel of Matthew

To show its importance in faith and emphasize the inconceivable by the human mind to the divine reality, Catholics often speak of the mystery of the Trinity, as defined truth of faith is not accessible to the light of human reason alone. This is one of three major mysteries with the Redemption and the Incarnation.

In the Orthodox Church : (name).

Summary of the Catholic faith on the Trinity

There is only one personal God, transcendent to the world that contains within itself all the perfections. He is omniscient, omnipotent, and he is Love.

There are three persons in God, the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, who are revealed to us through the incarnation of the Son and the sending of the Holy Spirit. They possess the unique divine nature and that is whole and indivisible divinity that is in each person, in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Between the three divine persons there is a real distinction, based solely on the mutual relations that they maintain them. The Father is himself the divine nature. The Son proceeds from the Father by eternal generation. The Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son or the Father through the Son as one and the same principle as they are one God.

Father, Son and Holy Spirit are interwoven in the most perfect circumincession of Love in Greek perichoresis and act through a single operation in the world outside them.

The inner world of God (ad intra works) will only be known by their works external (ad extra), ie the creation, incarnation, redemption and the sending of the Spirit. The works of God ad extra imitate the internal processes and we speak for them.

The world of God, the Trinity is a perfect life of love and unity, love and unity are correlative.

churches of the Reformation

The situation is different depending on whether American churches, frequently evangelicalism or churches of historical currents, mostly European. In the latter stream, the Free Review predominates so that the problem is unless you believe in the doctrine of the Trinity to have a position about it. For the current confession of these churches, understanding it is widely Modalist.

With regard to the Anglican Communion , the faithful of this church shall enjoy freedom of conscience from a synod of the 1980s and this puts them in a situation similar to that of the followers of other European churches.

Authors Protestants observe that the trinity is not in the New Testament. It follows that the theological debate continues opening up opportunities for theologies Christian non chalcdonniennes.

When these churches have a mixed position on the confessions of faith , we speak of non-confessional churches to show that for the faithful, no dogma is a central point of the true faith. The theology of these churches consider that any speech deemed final on the inner feelings to God struck the transcendence that it recognize all three monotheistic religions. Anti-Trinitarianism

Participants at the Council of Nicaea was not a unanimous position. Arius , one of three opponents of the creed of the council, is the origin of Arianism , described as heresy by the Church.

From the Reformation , several schools of thought antitrinitarians formed. First Unitarian Church Christian was born in the seventeenth, to Naples and then chased the Unitarians went to the North (Switzerland) and then to Eastern Europe (Poland and Transylvania), and finally they have followers in England ...

Nowadays, many minority Christians refute the current dogma of the Trinity: The Unitarian Church , the Christian Science , the Christadelphians , the Church of God , some groups including Adventists Seventh Day Adventism, the Antoinism , movements from the works of Charles Taze Russell ( Jehovah's Witnesses , the Association of Students of the Bible and the Philanthropic Association of Friends of Man ).

The Mormons also reject the dogma of the Trinity: God the Father, His Son Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit are regarded as three separate and physically separated (but united in their goal of salvation of mankind).

Quotes

  • "That serves you to discuss deeply on the Trinity, if you lack humility, by which you displease the Trinity? "( Imitation of Christ , 1, 6).

Let us remember that even when death is Michael Servetus at the stake because he had other ideas about the Trinity that Calvin ...

References

  1. a , b and c Critical Dictionary of Theology, ed. Yves Lacoste, article Trinity, PUF, 1998.
  2. The word , logos, "word", "reason," thought ", when used to refer to Jesus , is usually translated as "Word" in French, transcribed from the Latin Verbum, which is in the Vulgate.
  3. Tresmontant Claude , The first elements of theology, EYE, 1987. Notes

    Related articles

    Bibliography

    Ancient authors

    Modern Authors

    • Catechism of the Catholic Church, Mame / Plon, 1992.
    • Critical Dictionary of Theology, ed. Yves Lacoste, PUF, 1998.
    • Reformed Review, No. 222 - March 2003 - Volume LIV. The Triune God and His attributes by Louis Berkhof, dynamic translation of Chapters II to VIII of his Systematic Theology by Marie-Jose Visme, VII, Holy Trinity. Digital Edition.
    • Dumeige, Catholic Faith, 1961.
    • Marie-Joseph Nicolas , OP, Short Treatise of Theology, Descle, 1990.
    • Yanick Farmer quaternity in Trinidad and CG Jung, Laval theological and philosophical, vol.57, no.2, 2001, pp.291-304. Online: http://www.erudit.org/revue/ltp/2001/v57/n2/401352ar.pdf
    • Raimon Panikkar , The Trinity: An essential human experience, "This Word," Cerf, 2003
    • Maxence Caron , St. Augustine. Trinity, Paris, 2004.
    • Karl Rahner , Herbert Vorgrimler, Little Dictionary of Theology, Seuil, 1997.
    • Jean-Marc Rouvire brief meditation on the creation of the world, Ed L'Harmattan, Paris 2006
    • James E. Talmage, The Holy Trinity Articles of Faith, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Salt Lake City, 1890.
    • Claude Tresmontant , the first elements of theology, EYE, 1987.
    • Claude Tresmontant , Introduction to Christian Theology, Seuil, 1970.
    • Richard E. Rubenstein, the day when Jesus became God, La Dcouverte, 2004 (Subtitle: The "case Arius' or the great dispute about the divinity of Christ in the last century of the Roman Empire)

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