Thomas Aquinas
| Thomas Aquinas | |
| Western theologian and philosopher | |
| Medieval theology and philosophy | |
 | |
St. Thomas Aquinas, the Angelic Doctor Altarpiece by Carlo Crivelli (1494) | |
| Birth | 1224/1225 (Castle Roccasecca , near Aquino in Italy ) |
|---|---|
| Deaths | March 7 , 1274 (Abbey Fossanova in Lazio ) |
| School / tradition | Aristotle , founder of Thomism |
| Main interests | Theology , metaphysics , epistemology , ethics , logic , politics , aesthetics |
| Notable ideas | Quinquae viae , link faith and reason , autonomy of earthly realities |
| Influenced by | Aristotle , the Church Fathers , Augustine , Pseudo-Dionysius , Boethius , Scotus Eriugena , Anselm , Averroes , Maimonides , Albertus Magnus |
| Influenced | (Among others ...) Giles of Rome , Dante , Gaetani , Ignatius of Loyola , Surez , Locke , Leibniz , Brentano , Maritain , Gilson , Heidegger , Geach , Boutang , Anscombe |
change  | |
| Thomas Aquinas | |
|---|---|
 St. Thomas Aquinas, Doctor of the Church Catholic (1225-1274) | |
| Angelic Doctor | |
| Birth | 1224/1225 Aquino |
| Deaths | 7 March 1274 (approximately 49 years) Abbey Fossanova |
| Nationality | Italian |
| Revered | Toulouse ( Couvent des Jacobins ) |
| Canonization | 1323 Avignon (France) by John XXII |
| Day | January 28 (formerly 7 March) |
| Patron saint | universities and schools |
| Servant of God Venerable Happy St. | |
Thomas Aquinas (b. 1224 / 1225 in Castle Roccasecca near Aquino in southern Italy, died on 7 March 1274 at the Abbey Fossanova near Priverno in Lazio ), is a religious of the Dominican Order , famous for his theological and philosophical. Considered one of the principal masters of philosophy Scholastic and Catholic theology , he was canonized in 1323 and proclaimed Doctor of the Church by Pius V in 1567 and patron of universities, schools and Catholic academies, by Leon XIII in 1880. There is also a patron of booksellers. He is also qualified as "Angelic Doctor". His body is kept under the high altar of the church of the former convent of the Dominicans of Toulouse.
Its name derived from the words:
- " Thomism "/" Thomist "school or on the current philosophical and theological claims to Thomas Aquinas and develops the principles beyond the letter of its original historical expression;
- " Neo-Thomism 'current philosophical and theological thought Thomist type, developed from the nineteenth century ) to meet objections raised by the modern Catholic Christianity;
- "Thomasien": what is the thought of Thomas Aquinas himself, regardless of historical developments brought about by his reception.
In 1879, Pope Leo XIII in his encyclical Aeterni Patris said that the writings of Thomas Aquinas expressed properly the doctrine of the Church. At the time could distinguish poorly thought of Thomas Aquinas himself Thomistic school and notional shifts due to the receipt in time. Vatican II (Optatam Totius decree on priestly formation, No. 16) provides the authentic interpretation of the papal teaching on the subject, more accurate and more open at once, asking the theological training of priests be done "with Thomas Aquinas to master."
About the continuity of the Catholic Church , Thomas Aquinas proposed the thirteenth century , a theological work which is based in some respects, a test synthesis of reason and faith, especially when attempts to reconcile Christian thought and philosophy realistic to Aristotle. He distinguishes the truths accessible to reason alone, those of faith, defined as an unconditional adherence to the Word of God. He describes the philosophy of servant of theology (ancilla theologiae philosophia) to express how the two disciplines work together so 'subalternated' seeking knowledge of the truth, the path to happiness.
Early life and aspiration to Dominican (1224/1225-1244)
Son of Count Landolfo of Aquino and Theodora Countess d'Inverno, originally Norman Thomas was born in 1224/1225 . Family Aquinas is a large family of Italy, the Pontifical partisan party.
Of in 1230 / 1 231 in 1239 , it is oblate at the Abbey Benedictine of Monte Cassino. He remained there nine years, during which he learns to read and write and the rudiments of grammar and Latin, together with basic religious training.
From 1239 , Frederick II , fighting against Gregory IX , expelled the monks of the abbey. On the advice of the abbot, Thomas' parents had been sent to Naples to continue his studies at the Studium regni (not a university, but a local academy), founded by Frederick II in 1220. He then studied with masters of the classical disciplines of Trivium and Quadrivium , then no doubt he finds Aristotle through Averroes whose Latin translations began to circulate. Then he meets Preachers whose life and vitality of the Apostolic attract.
His father died on 24 December 1243 , making the young Thomas a little more free of his destiny. He decided to enter the Dominican order in April 1244 , at the age of twenty years, against the advice of his family who wants to be the abbot of Monte Cassino. His mother is then removed and placed under house arrest in Roccasecca where he remained one year. Thomas does not consider changing, however, his family finally accepted his choice .
Studies in Paris, first lessons (1245-1259)
He was then a student at Paris in 1245 to 1248 , during the reign of Louis IX. Then he followed his master Albertus Magnus (Dominican commentator of Aristotle ) to Cologne until 1252 , where his colleagues study the affublent the nickname "dumb ox" because of his stature and character taciturn. Back in Paris, he attended the university curriculum for students in classical theology is biblical bachelor (readings of scripture commentary) from 1252 to 1254 , then bachelor sententiaire. He wrote during this comment period books of Isaiah and Jeremiah (and Super Super Isaiam Ieremiam) and the De ente et essentia (1252). As sententiaire bachelor, he comments on the Book of Sentences of Peter Lombard , who became the handbook of theological studies at the University of Paris since the early thirteenth century. Thomas Aquinas made the comment in two years during his teaching bachelor sententiaire. Commentary (Scriptum super libros Sententiarum) is huge: more than 600 folio pages), written from 1254 to 1256 while following some of the classes in schools in Paris and Studium Dominican Saint-Jacques. In spring 1256, with the support of the Sovereign Pontiff must intervene with the university, in the context of adversarial opposition beggars and secular, he defended his Master of Divinity and Master is appointed Regent (magister in sacra pagina doctor or Scripture) - with Bonaventure Bagnorea - It immediately begins to teach and prepare the disputed issues: De veritate (1256-1259), the Quodlibet (7-11) said the De Trinitate of Boethius (1257 to 1258 ) ... It is primarily engaged in theological disputes ( disputation ), with commentaries on the Bible and preaching in public. The commentaries on Aristotle by Thomas Aquinas never been a public school.
Italian Prime Education (1259-1268)
In 1259 , Thomas was thirty-four when he leaves for Italy where he taught theology until 1268 , while already enjoying a high reputation.
He was first assigned to Orvieto , as a reader convent, that is to say, responsible for the continuing education of the community. It is however the leisure to complete the drafting of the award against the Gentiles (begun 1258) and the Expositio super Iob ad litteram (1263-1265). He writes including the explanation continues the Gospels, later known as the Golden Chain (Catena aurea), an anthology of quotations patristic organized to form a continuous commentary of the Gospels , verse by verse. This book of considerable importance from the standpoint of the history of the reception of Greek Christian writers, reads from 1263 to 1264 at the request of Pope Urban IV in which Thomas dedicates the chain on Matthew.
Thomas is sent to Rome between 1265 and 1268 as regent master. During this stay, assigned to the intellectual formation of young Dominicans , Thomas De potentia Dei also writes (1265-1266), the first part of the Compendium of Theology , starting in 1266 writing the Summa Theologica. He began his comments on Aristotle in the Commentary "On the Soul" (1267-1268), adopting the method of explanation verbatim great reviews (tafsir) of Averroes. Also in Italy he composed the Office of the Blessed Sacrament at the time of institution of the Feast of Corpus Christi. He also wrote several pamphlets in answers to specific people or higher on a variety of issues: economic, canonical or moral.
During this period he had the opportunity to work with the papal court (which was not resident in Rome). Assigned to convents in which he fulfilled a particular task, nothing says he followed the Pope in his continual movement. The curia had no previous head sets.
It is probably during this period he had the opportunity to preach sermons on the Creed, the Pater and Ave Maria, as they were preached during Lent in the Naples area and that Thomas was longer able to do so in 1273.
Return to Paris, quarrels university (1268-1272)
Thomas returns from 1268 to Easter 1272 in Paris, including the University is in full intellectual and moral crisis caused by the spread of Aristotelianism and the quarrels between the mendicant orders, the secular and regular. The theologian Remi Florence followed his progress during his second Parisian education. He was forty-four years when writing the second part (Pars IIa) of the Summa Theologica and the greater part of the Commentary works of Aristotle. It faces attacks against the mendicant orders, but also rivalries with Franciscans and arguments with some masters of arts (especially Siger of Brabant , whose mysterious death is told by Dante , who also refers to how enigmatic rivalry between Thomas and Siger in the Paradise of the Divine Comedy ). He wrote De perfectione spiritualis vitae (1269-1270) and Quodlibet I-VI and XII against the secular and treatises aeternitatis mundi (1271) and De intellectus unitate (1270) Averroism cons of the masters of the Faculty of Arts .
Second Italian teaching, the foundation of the Naples studium generale (1272-1273)
After the incredible work done for both teaching and writing of his work, the constant struggles he had to conduct within the University, Thomas is sent by his superiors to Naples to organize the studium generale of Dominicans (founded 1269), for the training of young Dominican friars of the Province of Rome and teach there as regent master in theology. The reasons for the recall in Naples are not obvious. Presumably it was at the urging of King Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX of France. Certainly this was despite pleas from the University of Paris . Thomas is hard at work between late June and September 1272. He continued writing the third part (Pars IIIa) of the Summa Theologica , from question 7, he wrote including questions about Christ and the sacraments he never finished. He resumed his teaching on the epistles of Paul (Romans), the commentary on the Psalms (1272-1273), and some commentaries on Aristotle.
His last vision and the end (1273-1274)
From 6 December 1273 , after having had an overwhelming spiritual experience during mass , it ceases to write, because, he says, compared to what he understood the mystery of God, everything he wrote it seems like straw. His health declined so swiftly. Nearly aphasic , he nevertheless makes the Council of Lyons , where he was summoned by Pope Gregory X. He died on the way, the 7 March 1274 , aged approximately 50 years, the monastery Cistercians of Fossanova. There will be based until the translation of his remains in 1369 at Toulouse , the Jacobins , where it still rests today. They say he was commenting on the Song of Songs to the monks who accompanied him on his deathbed. In receiving his last communion , he said :
"I receive you, O salvation of my soul. It is for love of you that I studied, watched all night and I'm exhausted, it's you that I have preached and taught. I never said a word against you. I do not cling stubbornly to my own sense, but if ever I misspoke on this sacrament, I submit the decision of the Holy Roman Church in obedience to which I am dying. "
Most accounts agree in representing him as a tall and strong. His appearance should be smooth because, when passing through the countryside, the good people abandoned their work and rushed to meet him, "admiring his imposing stature and beauty of his features." His students presented him as a man anxious not to offend anyone by bad words, and very hard work, getting up early, well before the first services to start working. His piety turned mainly to celebrate the Sacrifice of the Mass and to the image of Christ crucified .
His works are cataloged in a writing of 1319, but their exact chronology is based on a review of the complex sources and manuscripts, and is now essentially fixed, although some details are still discussed.
The work of Thomas Aquinas was sentenced on March 18th 1277 by Archbishop Robert Kilwarby English. William de la Mare, Franciscan, published about 1279 correctorium a brother of Thomas, 117 proposals identifying too bold. Subsequently rehabilitated, including the growing influence of the Dominican order , he is canonized in 1323 by Pope John XXII. Nevertheless, his ideas continue to debate, including within the Dominican order in which the general chapters many times must reiterate the obligation not to criticize the ideas of Thomas Aquinas.
Thomas in his time
Contextualization of the work of Thomas Aquinas and his thought, long regarded as the philosophia perennis in the Church, was initiated in the twentieth century by Marie-Dominique Chenu in the introduction to the study of St. Thomas Aquinas, then resumed in the late 1990s by Jean-Pierre Torell, in his Introduction to St. Thomas Aquinas and as a result of his teaching, the Theological School of Fribourg. Indeed, like any thinker, Thomas Aquinas is taken in the problems of his day, all-order theological and philosophical. Thus it is impossible to study the thought of Thomas without considering working in a context entirely Christian, with his own faith in the Christian God, and with the methods and limitations of his time.
Thomas Aquinas wrote the majority of his work at the University of Paris in the thirteenth century , during the reign of Louis IX of France. The university teaching at the time was based on three pillars: the explanation of texts, the disputed questions and preaching. The arguments are reasoned, some specific issues selected by the master, and others, called Quodlibet, on topics proposed by students is either chosen randomly . Like all academic theological works of the era, issues and articles of the Summa theologiae adopt the dialectical structure of disputed questions, although the Somme has never been a teaching of Thomas Aquinas.
General character of the work of Thomas Aquinas
Theologian before philosopher
Thomas Aquinas, who is one of the first - if not the first - to distinguish theology natural and revealed theology, went in search of an understanding of faith, by natural reason, relying on Aristotle. However, contemporary studies ass = "cite_crochet"> have pointed out that Thomas Aquinas is primarily a theologian, and his philosophy fits into a theological Christian , taking into account the creation, the existence of God, life Grace, Redemption.
Reports of faith and reason
Since the late nineteenth century , the rationalist critique of the objections have prompted the Catholic apologetics to highlight some of the positions of Thomas Aquinas on the relationship of faith and reason. Thomas Aquinas maintains that the Christian faith is not inconsistent or contradictory with the exercise of due compliance with its principles, that is to say not diverted from its natural purpose by the vice and sin { references}. The truths of faith and those of reason can be integrated into a synthetic smooth, without contradicting himself. At a time when philosophy began to organize into an autonomous discipline in schools and universities, it places the truths transmitted by the Sacra doctrina - Revelation - above all sciences, since the revelation comes from God, who by definition, can neither deceive nor be deceived. In this theological perspective, Aquinas posits respect for the rational order, created and willed by God to enable man to know the truth. It differs from what is right and natural reason enlightened by Revelation (Scripture and Tradition), natural theology and revealed theology .
Philosophy realistic
Human intellectual knowledge (this does not apply to the angel nor God) is the result of a cognitive process of abstraction which leads the human mind to sensory experience and material knowledge of the immaterial intellect by mediation of sensible knowledge he calls immaterial. In an objection of the De Veritate, he summarizes this principle by the scholastic adage nihil in intellectu quod is non sit prius in sensu ("Nothing in the intellect that was not first in the senses" ) which is not the author, which occurs only once in all his work. What's in intelligence is abstract images provided by the senses.
The epistemology of Thomas Aquinas distances itself partially of the neo-Platonic sense that only provide misleading information and the body is a prison for the soul. It is more a meeting of the realist philosophy of Aristotle and belief of faith in the divine origin and the goodness of the material creation. Sensitive faculties of man are intrinsically good, created without the intention to deceive in order to allow the man access to the knowledge of the True and the Good.
God known by its effects
Following St. Paul, Thomas states that man can acquire knowledge of the existence of God from the world and not from the deduction of logic or abstract principles. It is quite possible to access some knowledge of God - primarily its existence, its status as a primary cause - without Revelation , observing the world through indirect knowledge and a posteriori. This is the meaning of paths that lead to so-called cosmological knowledge of the existence of God from observation of the universe . Thomas Aquinas propose five ways that lead to the conclusion, through the exercise of reason, the existence of a being that everyone calls God: Quinquae viae. They are based on the distinction between what God is "for us (quoad nos) (eg God as creator of the world) and what He is" in itself "(in itself) (which is impossible to fully know in this world, because, because of its supreme perfection, He is beyond what can be known by the creature itself. The exercise of this rational knowledge is often hindered by sin. It must therefore be supported and supplemented by the revelation and the grace of redemption, with which man was created capable of God (capax Dei), was taken to achieve its ultimate goal: to contemplate the essence of God face to face in the Bliss , that is to say, after death for the blessed.
Human nature at the center of his project
The human being is central to the whole work of Thomas Aquinas. The nature of man as a material and spiritual, on the border between the seen and unseen, is analyzed with the tools Aristotelians. Man is essentially body and mind. Thomas Aquinas and adopts the hylomorphism (man as composed of a unified matter and form), and the theory of knowledge realistic , that is to say he believes there nothing in the intelligence which had previously been the domain of meaning. Thomas gives meaning to the analysis of human nature as being and not merely as a creature. He has always had a great awareness of the limitations of human nature, but also its capabilities, both natural and supernatural.
Morality as a return to God
The moral of Thomas Aquinas is a finalist , because it envisages a supreme end, and naturalist , because it relies on an anthropology of human nature accurate and realistic. The man must be part of the order of the universe willed by God, that is to say, do what it was created: to know and love God. Morality because it concerns the human being as a being composed of soul and body, must include in its path all inclinations sensitive, all passions, all love, so that man comes to an end in its integrity: this is the happiness in the natural order and Bliss in the supernatural order. The moral life consists, for each man to develop at the highest point its capabilities and opportunities under the guidance of natural reason , and open to the supernatural life offered by God.
Theology and Philosophy
God is the object of all the work of Thomas Aquinas. According to Thomas, the philosophy studied first created beings, then to rise to the knowledge of God , in the order of theology , on the contrary, we begin with the study of God, and it is this order is followed in the Money. Therefore, the order of theology may be so specified: "The main purpose of the sacred doctrine is to transmit the knowledge of God, not only as he is in himself, but also according to whether it is the beginning and the end of things, especially the rational creature " .
Philosophy and theology thus differ in the first object of human knowledge, and they also differ accordingly in their approach : there is an epistemological status specific to each of these two speeches, which raises the question of whether it leads in both areas at truths that go or not and how.
Thomas's thesis is that faith and reason can not contradict each other because they both emanate from God, theology and philosophy can not reach divergent truths. This is the argument of the double truth that is found in the award against the Gentiles and in question 1 of the Summa Theologica : as the light of reason and of the faith come from God they can not contradict itself. Better still, faith uses of reason as grace makes use of nature, that is to say that the truths of natural reason (ratio naturalis) are used to illuminate the articles of faith.
Thus, there is no radical break between theology and philosophy (unlike Bonaventure Bagnorea , for example, who said that "theology begins where philosophy ends"). Thomas Aquinas makes the famous adage that "philosophy is the handmaiden of theology" (Philosophia ancilla theologiae) insofar as philosophy, reflecting on the conditions for consistent use of concepts and language , allows to theology to make because of how well founded and rational truths of faith are, by definition, inaccessible to reason but not contrary to it. It is therefore hierarchical collaboration between servant and mistress, both subordinated to divine knowledge, but each to his rank: theology as a science because it is directly above its principles from Revelation and uses the findings of all other sciences, while philosophy, whose purposes are ordered for that of theology, takes his principles of reason alone .
Ratio naturalis and Revelation
In sum against the Gentiles Thomas Aquinas clarifies the concept of natural reason (ratio naturalis) to account for the Christian faith over the objections of reason, of heresies and philosophers, both ancient and contemporary Jewish and Muslims. He appealed to the Bible or the Fathers in the fields of theological discussion itself as the mystery of Christ's being. Thomas Aquinas presents initially purely rational arguments to show later that they coincide with the Bible. In this sense, natural reason is common ground for all humanity and proves the consistency between the revealed truths and the truths of reason. However, natural reason can not reach "by its own forces for a complete understanding of the mysteries revealed. Indeed, the so-called natural theology is backward: it goes from the bottom (creatures) up (God), but its development is limited within the frameworks of "per se" (for himself). God will not be seen in what he himself is "in se", but what He is for us, for example, we can not know if he is a creator in himself, but from creatures, we can infer that He is creator "for us". Instead theology based on revelation is down since she left the top (the accepted truths of God) down (creatures). Theology is not a deductive discourse based solely on reason. It is by nature and knowledge of the Sacra doctrina: the Holy Scriptures received in the tradition of the Church .
Thomas Aquinas uses specific terminology to clarify the distinction faith / reason and common interactions. He called "Revelation" (revelabile) revealed knowledge accessible to natural reason (such as the existence of God, for example) and "revealed" (revelatum) which can not be known without revelation (as the incarnation of Christ , for example) . It is possible to know objects inaccessible to natural reason by the grace :
There is one final way of knowing God who is in bliss , that is to say in a face-to-face with the divine essence.
Deepening of the four senses of Scripture
Thomas Aquinas is the heir to the explanatory diagram called "the four senses of Scripture "which is essentially based on a distinction between the literal and the allegorical or spiritual meaning of sacred texts, circulated in antiquity by the authors of New Testament. Thomas refines the theoretical explanation or scholastic. The things signified by the words of Scripture refer themselves to other things. Thus the hermeneutic scriptural Thomas Aquinas exposes the literal or historical meaning as the foundation of the spiritual senses of Scripture: the sense allegorical , moralistic and the sense anagogical.
Thomas Aquinas devoted a disputed question ( disputation ) to these senses of Scripture: The Sacred Meaning of writing - from Sacrae sensibus Scripturae in 1266.
God of Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas is primarily a theologian: the main object is to lift the veil that hides metaphysical God to our human existence . God is absolutely everywhere in the work of Thomas Aquinas in metaphysics (as creator, prime mover, etc..), Morality (as the beginning and end of man), in moral theology (as Provider the Holy Spirit), etc.. God is identified, and it's a first, being (ens) and not the bonum (good), as in Augustine of Hippo, for example. It is an interpretation of God onto-theological is based on deep analysis of "I am He who is" of Exodus . The method of theology developed by Thomas Aquinas is called negative theology, as it progresses by way of deprivation. The method is thus: God is infinite because it is not over, it is good because it is not bad, etc..
The Existence of God
Why try to prove God's existence in the middle of the thirteenth century, while the environment is entirely Christian, and that Thomas is for theologians? The existence of God is it not obvious and is it worth the show? In fact, Aquinas does not so much seek to prove the existence of God than to find the conditions of possibility for man to ascend to God by the forces of reason.
According to Thomas, who opposes Bonaventure , the existence of God is not obvious : This is not an innate idea that every man has in him and that the mere reflection (to avoid bias , as later in Descartes ) he discovered. Thomas is Aristotelian: we have no natural notion of being infinite. God is not knowable "in itself or in itself (in se), but only" for himself "(per se), that is to say you can hear what God ' It is for us, not what he is in himself. Thomas Aquinas this problem based on a method different from that and those who think that God is evident from Himself, because Thomas goes to the essence of existence: it is a metaphysical problem that does consider things well.
However, we can know that God is the "natural light", that is to say the reason. We are not here yet in the true theology , that God is, it shows that the natural philosophy. Thomas takes over for the show and five lanes of reasoning that are based on the actual existing ascend to God. And in these three ways of knowing God, he says he knows rather than the uncreated created himself. Thus, for example, can not be said simply because our God is creative in itself, but that He is creative with respect to us as we are created.
The method to go back to God through reason boils down to three points by way of causality (it is the cause of this world), by way of negation , that is to say, by denying him what is limit us (for example: God is not material, mortal, located etc..), and by way of eminence, asserting that there is in him that is highly qualitative in us (for example: God is love, intelligence , power).
Summa Theologica , PART I, Question 2, Article 3: "God is he? "
Thomas Aquinas said that there are five lanes ( quinquae viae ) to prove that God exists:
1 by the movement : things are constantly in motion, yet it is necessary that there be a moving cause any movement. In order not to back a drive to another question, one must recognize the existence of a "non-prime motor driven" is God.
2 by efficient causality we observe a chain of cause and effect in nature, yet it is impossible to trace cause and causes the infinite must necessarily be a First Cause : it God.
3 degrees of contingency: there are things in the universe who did not necessary in themselves the basis of their necessity. Therefore by a Being who Himself is God necessary.
4 by the degrees of beings evidence taken from Plato, who noted that there are perfections in things (well, beautiful, love, etc..) But to different degrees. Now it is necessary that there be a Being who possesses these perfections to a maximum degree, since in nature all the perfections are limited.
5 by the order of the world: there is order in nature: the eye is directed to view the lungs breathing, etc.. Or in any order must be an intelligence that controls it. This Intelligence ordinator is God.
Thomas Aquinas had no way intended to prove the existence of God because he spoke to students of theology (that is to say, friars preachers, priests, etc..) For which This existence was taken for granted. The intent of Thomas Aquinas was rather to show that we could access God through natural reason, from what we see in the world . Therefore it does not offer "proof", but "assault".
The God, the Triune God
- Questions 2 to 26 of the first part of the Summa Theologica relate the one God, that is to say, the God of the metaphysicians.
We discover that God exists (q 2), it is simple (q 3), infinite (q 7-8), perfect (q 4-6) and immutable and eternal (q 9-10 ).
First, it is not body, God is the first unmoved mover, or no body moves unless it is moved, then God is not a body . It can be composed of matter and form, since matter is in power and that God is pure act . Its existence includes gasoline or "God is identical to its being" for the act to exist requires only the cause of existence, which is itself in God .
- Questions 27 to 43 of the first part of the Summa Theologica concerning the Triune God and make a distinction between the Persons ( hypostasis ) of God.
The Trinity is composed of the Father (q 33), the Son is the Word and Image, (q 33-35) and the Holy Spirit which is called by "Love" and "Don" (q 36 - 38). Their relations are discussed in question 39 to question 43 of the Summa Theologica. There are two processions in God: that generation and that of love . Thomas Aquinas, to explain the substantial unity of the three divine Persons uses the concept of relationship .
The Triune God and God are one and the same entity in itself incomprehensible. The God of the Faith (Trinity) is absolutely inconsistent with the God of reason (One God).
We stand there in what Martin Heidegger called an onto-theology, that is to say in a schema that God is rational concept before the God of faith: God comes in philosophy before entering theological . However, other commentators, such as Etienne Gilson show that metaphysics-theology of Thomas Aquinas escapes this critique of Heidegger's onto-theological .
Christ
Christ is the Son, that is to say the person who is Trinitarian Word. Christology of Thomas Aquinas is developed in the tertia pars of the Summa Theologica of 90 questions (and 99 if you count the supplement). The prologue to the tertia pars begins: "Our Saviour, the Lord Jesus (...) was shown to us as the way of truth, by which we can now reach the resurrection and the bliss of immortal life. " God became incarnate (q 1-26); He suffered in his flesh for men (q 27-59). We access to eternal life and the sacraments in and through Christ. His incarnation was proper to God is what has been called reasons of convenience, "it seems of utmost convenience by the visible things are manifested invisible attributes of God. The world was created for this, according to the Apostle (Rom 1: 20): "The invisible things of God can be discovered at the thought of her children." But, "said S. John Damascene is the mystery of the Incarnation that we are manifested in the goodness, wisdom, justice and power of God: his goodness, because he has not despised the weakness of our flesh; his justice, because the man was overpowered by the tyrant of the world, God has willed that this tyrant is defeated in turn by the man himself, and that respects our freedom he has rescued us from death, his wisdom, for the most difficult situation, he has given the best solution, and its infinite power, because nothing is greater than this: that God became man. "
Also in these reasons of convenience, Aquinas relies on the following diffusium bonum: Good is what is broadcast. God communicates himself thus: "As to everything pertaining to the nature of good belongs to God. However, it is for the reason that he communicates himself to others as shown Denys. It also belongs to the sovereign because it is communicated well to the supreme creature. And that sovereign communication takes place when God unites with nature created so as to form one person of these three realities: the Word, the soul and the flesh "
The Incarnation, in addition to being necessary for the salvation of men , by necessity superlative (the best possible way), is also the sensible manifestation of God in his glory, willed by God Himself.
The Creator God: Its Creation
The exitus Reditus
Thomas Aquinas considers the creation as a transitive action from God, that is to say, as something from him, but will return to Him by a movement of exitus Reditus (exit / return) . Creation is therefore interpreted in a dynamic intrinsic metaphysical things.
The Summa Theologica begins :
"We will therefore have to explain this doctrine, process:
- of God (Part I: Ia)
- the movement of the rational creature to God (Part: Ia, IIa and IIae generally, especially IIae)
- of Christ as man is for us the path to God (Part III: IIIa). "
Thus, God, who created the world out of pure love, is the principle of all things (as creator), but also the end of all things (as ultimate end: happiness), because he printed the creatures a movement towards him. Thus was organized the Summa Theologica, but also how everything, every being, every act will be located and known in the movement that comes from God and returns to . This plan will lead to the rational knowledge of things divine causes, and their purposes are also divine.
The pure spirits or Angels
Pure spirits or angels are the type of creature that carries in its very nature the highest degree of perfection of all creation. The angelology Thomist is extremely important in volume and in the eyes of the author himself. It includes the study of angels, demons , retention of some and drop others, their relationships among themselves, and their relationship with humans. The Thomist angelology represents many questions in the Summa Theologica .
Some important points:
- the existence of angels can be demonstrated
- they are only spiritual substance and intangible
- every angel is in itself a species
- they are incorruptible and immortal, but do not exist from eternity
- there is a hierarchy between them
- they know only by intuition ,
- they can sin (hence the fall of the demons)
- they can talk
- men can be, for the result , on par with the highest angelic orders
- Angels control all corporeal beings
- the angel can illuminate the mind of man , act on the intelligence of man and act on their meaning
- Sometimes they deliver messages to men of God
Theory of Knowledge
Thomas Aquinas is considered a realist philosopher. He holds of Aristotle that all knowledge is first before being sensitive in the intelligence . The reality is not outside the human being, as in Plato , but it is not just the sensitive, as in the nominalism which follows Thomas Aquinas (for example, in William of Ockham ). The best exposition of the epistemology of Thomas Aquinas is in the Summa Theologica , I re part of question 84 to question 89.
We follow the architecture of the Summa Theologica, which states:
- how the soul knows the realities that are lower (sensory reality and noticeable) (q 84-88);
- how the soul knows itself (introspection) (q 87);
- how she knows the realities that are superior (God and angels).
Sensible knowledge
The issue of perceptual knowledge is based on the problem of knowing the realities in mind below. This design originally Aristotelian finds its degree of completion and perfection in Thomas Aquinas. Man is a creature composed of body and soul that knows the world by tapping into sensitive. The senses are not to deny since the man is a body immersed in a world body: the senses allow him to be connected to this world body. This is particularly from those sections of the Somme that will arise the various forms of nominalism medieval. This is especially against the Platonists that Thomas Aquinas wishes to reaffirm, with Aristotle , the origin of significant ideas.
Thomas Aquinas rejects the position of Plato for whom ideas are totally separate from the body substances sensitive.
After that, Thomas Aquinas said that intelligence does know by the senses, but as the natural mode of intelligence universally, and necessarily immaterially: "Let us say that the soul knows bodies through the intellect , an acquaintance immaterial, universal and necessary. "
It must also rebut the position of Democritus , for whom the senses and intellect were exactly the same thing. Only Aristotle had an intermediate position satisfactorily. It is the latter that inspired Thomas Aquinas to develop a realistic theory of knowledge.
Thus we find in Thomas Aquinas interpretation of realism Aristotelian located between Platonism and empiricism of Democritus, where intelligence is an intellect which refreshes the human intellect from sense perceptions, purely passive, as they do that are receiving the action of an external object. Thus, all we know the sensitivity is individual or singular: only the agent intellect then generalizes perceptions sensitive general idea is to say, in concept.
Thomas Aquinas distinguishes the internal senses of the external senses:
- the external senses are the five senses (sight, smell, touch, hearing, taste) that allow the man to experience the material world ;
- internal senses are common sense (discernment and synthesis of sensations), fantasy, imagination, estimation and memory .
Intellectual knowledge
Intelligence is the power of the soul that connects it with the universal. Indeed, the intellect is not the entire reality, it is power over her. And as intellect is in potency compared to reality, it is passive in relation to reality . The intellect is nothing but all can become in that it receives, by means of the senses, the impression of reality: it is passive (passive intellect) .
Sense because the act of knowing how sensitive the image. But it is through the action of the intellect that this knowledge becomes a significant intellectual knowledge . What is the modality of this action of the intellect? It is the abstraction .
The man knows, first, through the senses. The ability to know the sensitive, which is perceptual knowledge, knows that the singularities is not known by the sensitivity that this apple here, that dog, etc:
"Everyone knows that power sensitive individual beings. "
- Summa , qu. 85, art. 1 : notre intellect opre-t-il en abstrayant des images les espces intelligibles ? "
Ainsi l'intellect humain n'est pas l'intellect d'intuition des anges. Les Esprits purs (l' ange ), de par le fait qu'ils ne sont pas relis un corps, ne connaissent les tres que dans leur forme immatrielle, ou, dira Thomas d'Aquin, par intuition , c'est--dire sans passer par le mode sensible.
Il ya une autre facult de connatre qui n'est pas l'acte d'un organe et n'est unie en aucune manire la matire corporelle : c'est l'intellect anglique. "
L'intellect humain connat la forme partir de l'image sensible fournie par les sens : Elle abstrait une forme individue dans une matire corporelle ; nous dirons par exemple qu'elle abstrait l'ide d'homme de cet homme-l en particulier. L'intelligence connat la nature des choses en abstrayant les singularits d'une chose en particulier. L'ide se forme en abstrayant de l'intelligible dans les donnes de l'exprience sensible ; c'est exactement le sens de ce passage : Or, connatre ce qui existe dans une matire individuelle, mais non en tant qu'elle existe dans telle matire, c'est abstraire de la matire individuelle la forme que reprsentent les images. Il serait galement possible de parler d'extraction. Nous comprenons maintenant pourquoi la connaissance intellectuelle est dite abstraite. Mais il existe plusieurs niveaux d'abstraction, selon que l'intelligence abstrait plus ou moins du singulier dans une chose.
Or, connatre ce qui existe dans une matire individuelle, mais non en tant qu'elle existe dans telle matire, c'est abstraire de la matire individuelle la forme que reprsentent les images. Et c'est pourquoi on doit dire que notre intelligence connat les ralits matrielles en les abstrayant des images. "
L'objet de l'intelligence est la ralit de faon intentionnelle. Dans l'ordre de la connaissance, les facults sensibles extraient une image sensible d'une matire et la fournissent l'intelligence, plus prcisment l'intellect passif . L'intellect agent est cet acte qui extrait la forme de l'image sensible : c'est cette facult qui procde par abstraction. Thomas d'Aquin nous dit : il ya le mme rapport entre l'espce intelligible et l'intelligence qu'entre l'espce sensible et le sens. L'intelligible est donc ce par quoi l'intelligence comprend, et non ce qu'elle connat. C'est un point d'importance capitale : on ne connat pas le concept, mais le concept est ce qui nous fait connatre. On appellera cela le ralisme des ides : ce qui est premirement connu, c'est la ralit dont l'espce intelligible est la ressemblance. . Ainsi l'objet (concept ou image) intelligence est le rel, mais de faon intentionnelle : de faon similaire. C'est ce stade qu'on retrouve ensuite l'intellect passif, car c'est lui qui est ce qui est connu de faon intentionnelle .
Le problme de l'unit de l'intellec t
It is important to discuss the error of Averroes because Thomas Aquinas devotes a whole book: Against Averroes. Thomas Aquinas developed his theory of intellectual knowledge from the works of Aristotle (including the De anima). But Thomas Aquinas had access to the comments of Muslims, including Averroes (see illustration). Thomas takes over the comments, says Aristotle with them, but abandoned them when they go too far. This is the case when Averroes speaks of the human intellect as separate and common to all.
"For some time many minds were caught by the error of Averroes , which seeks to prove that the intellect, Aristotle recognizes as possible, by a false name, is a kind of separate substance of the body about the essence, and who is connected in some way as to form, and moreover, it is possible that there is only one mind common to all: we have long refuted this error. . While the human intellect is in act in different ratios and power in relation to reality .The degrees of abstraction
Depending on the degree to which the abstract intellect sensitive images of intelligible forms, the essence of the thing (res) found it more or less distant from its sensible qualities first. By the method of abstraction, intelligence explores various depths and areas of intelligibility the same thing. It is possible to distinguish three :
- Leaving aside the peculiar character of the thing, we discover the nature and universal laws of that thing. It is at this level the experimental sciences such as physics or biology. These sciences are discovering the shape of the thing in its own case-sensitive;
- Leaving aside the physical and sensitive thing, it no longer considers that the accident amount; found that the level mathematics , which deals only with quantitative relationships in the nature of the thing, or its relations with other things;
- Leaving aside the quantities and physical properties of things, we are in the metaphysical , which is the most abstract science in that it deals only with the being of things as being, c that is to say, it deals with the ontology. So hence it is the best science "universal" and more "abstract".
Metaphysics
Thomas Aquinas, Doctor of the Catholic Church, Fra Angelico , 1395-1455Thomas Aquinas offers a properly philosophical discourse on the reality . Thomasienne metaphysics is a dynamic that determines the ontology to theology (which is sort of the crowning), following the intrinsic motion of the exitus Reditus. Beings, as created, part of this movement toward God, who is both their first cause and last end. Therefore taken through by theology, ontology thomasienne can not and should not be understood independently of theology and the mysteries revealed by God in the Bible , namely that every being is created, there is a visible universe ( that of men) and an invisible universe (the angels), it all started and that any form of being present will end as such.
The analogy of being
The analogy of being is the key concept of the metaphysics thomasienne because it reflects the uniqueness of reality while maintaining its multiplicity, and gives it a dynamic and hierarchical to God, a term to which all tends to be and ordered.
This concept is needed to Thomas Aquinas when he tries to call God to question 13 of the Summa Theologica. Being as being is neither univocal nor equivocal, it is like (as an analogy of proportionality):
- being qua being is not univocal, that is to say that it is not exactly the same in all things: for example, be a cup is not be exactly the same as that of a book, or the being of substance, which exists by itself, is not the same as the being of the accident, which needs a substance remain. Thomas Aquinas would say that being is not differentiated by differences in extrinsic being contains within itself all particular determinations.
- being qua being is not ambiguous, that is to say that it is not exactly different in all things. All things are: being is therefore a similar view in all things: it is truly common to all things.
Being does not happen the same way in all things, yet the same. So, concludes Thomas Aquinas, it is realized to varying degrees in things, by proportioning the diversity of these degrees. It prioritizes intrinsically in all things according to whether they are more or less fullness of Being, God, for all hierarchy implies a relationship or a reference to something unique . This is an ontological hierarchy "analogy of proportionality." All beings refer to something unique, God .
The theory of analogy of being a problem to commentators of Thomas Aquinas because of the diverse viewpoints from which Thomas discusses the topic, always through and occasionally over his work. The study of the most comprehensive synthesis available now on the issue, because of its historical reading of the development of thought thomasienne the issue is that of Bernard Mountains . Two schools of thought so irreducible, that of S. Thomas and that of Cajetan . They "demonstrate that the philosophy of being can develop in two directions parallel and rigorously constructed in the form of two themes whose solutions are neither interchangeable nor convergent. "(B. Montagnes, Op. Cit., Conclusion). Two paths that present themselves each define a particular metaphysical: in a first approach, the analogy tends to reduce the many to the one by conceptual risk of being confused with the concept, according to another approach, analogy tends to highlight the causal relations that connect people to the First Cause and tends to dissolve be involved in the first act of which he is involved.
Human nature
The man is on the borders of two kinds: the spiritual nature (as he has a mind) and the physical nature (as he has a body) . Thomas Aquinas guard the two definitions of Aristotle on the man he is by nature a "social animal" (Aristotle explains in the first book of the Policy ) and is a rational animal.
Statute of the rational creature in creation
Of all creation, man is regarded as a rational creature that is inherently printed late last up to God (under the dynamic metaphysics of exitus Reditus) to bliss ; of Moreover, "the man bears the likeness and shows the image of God" , which enables him to move freely toward the ends that look best and use whatever means seem most appropriate. Here we find a moral philosophy of responsibility as a free goal, very significant in the entire work of Aquinas, we find this thesis declined in the form of "autonomy of earthly realities." Be independent, is to give laws (autos-nomos in Greek). Thus man has to dictate laws to itself, but these laws are at a behavioral level: they are laws that need to be able to use the right means to achieve a good end and must comply with laws that God has revealed .
It develops very quickly when two of the statutes of the property rights: it characterizes what is best for achieving a purpose and relevance of this in relation to human nature. So the whole question of human nature to act according to a proper end to human nature. The rational creature is man finds herself diving with its responsibilities in an orderly by a higher intelligence: it is like then for man to maintain the natural order of things and that the main question of morality comes down to align its actions and its purpose in that order.
The soul and body
The main axiom is standard while the subject is this: If God has given to the human body is that it's necessarily good for him and he is made to be used. There is no duality in man according to Thomas Aquinas, the soul and body are one being. Indeed, if the soul and body are two principles or two different realities, they can not pursue the same activity "ontologically different realities can not engage in an activity." Yet when man acts, he acts with his whole being, his act is a . The soul is the form (in the terminology of Aristotle ) of human body and its material . This is the logic of hylomorphism Aristotelian: the soul is the only form of human compound to which it gives of being a living body and sensitive .
This was one of the great works of Thomas Aquinas have exceeded the neo-Platonic soul trapped in a body by applying the hylomorphism Christian Aristotelian conception of man. The essence of man is thus fully in the world of material beings: the man has a body, but "man is a body" . Body shape, that is to say the soul is the vital principle of man, which gives it the nature of man. The body is material, it gives man its unique characteristics: the body is the principle of individuation, what makes a man is this man, and not another. The hylomorphism is this conception of a substance as a "compound" of matter and form. The man is a substantial unity or ontological. So when the man thinks, the whole compound body / soul who thinks the same time, even when acting, or is a sport. Thomas Aquinas opens here a key metaphysical interpretation to the whole issue psychosomatic (interactions soul / body). Note that it is the same for the intellectual knowledge that begins with the senses, and therefore requires the body.
It is possible to distinguish three parts in the soul, which remains one :
- the vegetative soul, the principle of natural and vital needs of man
- the sensitive soul, principle of passivity of sensation and seat of the passions
- the intellectual soul, substantial form of man, as it is a reasonable
Human acts
We find a precise description of human acts in the prima secundae (Ia IIae) of the Summa Theologica. It is an axiom of Thomas Aquinas as saying that "if there are acts which are called human, that is because they are voluntary" . But the fact that an act is voluntary does not prove that it is free. An act is said to be truly human when it is voluntary free. The word "voluntary" means that the act arises from an inclination own " . The will is thus born of a desire that causes a tilt. This inclination is due when the man agrees. The will thus moves toward an end, which represents the end of the slope that has prompted this desire, yet this must be known to him "for something to happen for a purpose, any knowledge of this is required " . But this must be known to him by reason. In this definition of the will, we already see the dawn that the act can not be truly characterized as a voluntary act if: first, because it is based, and secondly, if it coincides with a real trend human nature. And furthermore, will dominate either all assets: this is what gives it its freedom and voluntary act of free calls.
To summarize:
1 the human act is voluntary, rational and free, does not satisfy either of these characteristics, it can only be described as human act but it will be classified as immoral or animal.
2 will be called internal in that it chooses one end and external in that it selects and executes the means to achieve it.
Passions
The study of the passions is fundamental: man is a being driven by his passions, as it is a unity of soul and body. The passion is a suffer (pati), from the outside, by different modalities, which modifies the sensitive appetite. We can choose or not to feel the passion because it is not proper to man, but only as an animal, not human specific, they are not part of the sphere morality , since this sphere governs only voluntary acts free, that are specific to humans. The soul and body experience themselves consistently one another, and when the soul feels the body, it is a "passion body" and when the body feels the soul, it is an "animal passion" (as caused by the soul, anima). So passion is a modification of the soul which comes from the body . The passions are provoked, grow and produce the compound in humans: study of the passions is thus based on an anthropology hylomorphic. They lie in what Thomas Aquinas called the sensitive appetite, which causes the movement toward an object of interest to the body .
Thomas Aquinas distinguishes different types of appetites which will arise the passions :
- natural appetite is a movement to be what interests because of its nature, the subject is moving towards such an object because it is ontologically necessary by its very nature, due to some connaturality between object and subject.
- sensitive appetite is triggered by the senses as they see something pleasurable or necessary clean (food, for example) or because of the case (generating, for example)
- Appetite is a desire for intellectual thought, entirely subject to reason in a rational free trial: it will.
Love is the fundamental principle of passion as it allows the dynamic between a first subject and object, and arouses the appetite, the movement itself the subject towards the object. It is a principle of motion, not the movement itself .
Moral science's goal is to bring the whole person (including bestiality) to a good life: it must not push the passions, but to integrate them into voluntary acts and make good use because it ' is the use that is made of the passion that makes it good or bad it is itself morally neutral. But what matters is that the presence or absence and degree of remoteness of the property sought will significantly affect the sensitivity of the whole human being, and therefore have important implications in terms physiological and psychological.
In order of passions, we can make a distinction between the passions of the irascible (irascibilis) and the passions of concupiscible (concupiscibilis) . The first is a movement that avoids or destroys the barriers to good, the second is the movement that will go toward or away from the property.
The Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas, Francisco de Zurbarn , 1631 , 475 x 375 cm, Seville , Provincial Museum of Fine ArtsThe moral: the man and his purpose
Nature in its totality is entirely focused God as its principle, its foundation and its ultimate end, and Revelation identifies God as the absolute good; humans can not escape that fact and any moral reflection must in this dynamic metaphysics as found in Thomas Aquinas perfect continuity between morality and metaphysics.
The rational creature is man in the world as a system of things is taken in this dynamic part of God as its principle and returns to rationally : the movement of the exitus Reditus where man comes from and returns to its Creator through acts ordered his own nature .
So God imparts a direction to things by creating them, and the direction given to the rational creature is to return to God through their actions that they themselves choose freely . It is the choice of these means correlated to the ultimate end which is the essence of moral science.
Thomas Aquinas conceptualizes his optimistic vision of man and the world to germinate in the heart of the moral life of the natural ability to achieve happiness, that is to say without the help of supernatural Thanks , though not without the help that man can reach perfect happiness in this world.
Thus, as there is a supernatural destiny of man, there is also a natural destiny: that destiny is happiness , and it is to do good, that is to say, to act according to its own nature, to maintain in the natural order of things, an order which can only be good because it is created directly by God.
So the rejection of any artificiality, whether individual or collective, and a question of adaptation of man to himself and the world around them: it is only in this context that the man will do well because he will not attempt to evade the divine government, but rather to adapt.
Virtue
Every human action is based on provisions of the soul is called virtue. Virtue is an asset (habitus) acquired and possessed permanently in the soul which "promotes the good humans act" and through which he achieved the happiness and reasonable assistance to the adequacy between ends and human nature. So an "inner principle" of human acts. Since the virtues are essential for the proper development of the moral life, and therefore assets that will ensue, it is necessary to include in this study on the property rights. Especially that virtue is defined as a willingness of the soul as it makes good: "Virtue is what makes him who possesses good" , for virtue is what guides sustainable the soul towards the good .
Thomas Aquinas distinguished:
- appetitive or moral virtues, which are in the sensitive part (or irrational) of the soul
- intellectual virtues, which are in the intellect, either speculative or practical
- the theological virtues and gifts of the Holy Spirit.
Moral virtue keeps man who possesses the right balance between different states that reflect its sensitivity, such as courage is the state of the man who is neither loose nor reckless . Now this is the appropriate environment for human beings: it is thus in place, in an act or default (cowardice), or in a err (recklessness), but in a strictly human act as a rational intellectual virtue that Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas called temperance (the intellectual virtue which relates to the ability of the rational soul calculator). Thus the moral virtues can not do without the intellectual virtues . Thus the virtuous act is one that directs the well because he is acting that best meets the substantial form of man is to be a reasonable creature. The proper moral problem of distance between man and his human nature has a solution (to practice) in the under : that acting virtuously that man acts like a man, and therefore acts well.
Among the intellectual virtues, there are some who are critical in relation to others: what are the cardinal virtues. There are four :
- "Intelligence";
- "Wisdom";
- "Simple intelligence" for the speculative part of the soul;
- "Prudence" for the computing part of the rational soul.
It is prudence which is the main cardinal virtues, it is most needed at the right human action, "prudence is the virtue most necessary to human life. " .
The theological virtues are so called because they are designed to God and they are caused by Him. They transcend the mere possibility of human nature, precisely because they are based on God: "the intellectual virtues and moral virtues perfect intelligence and appetite within the limits of human nature, but the theological virtues, supernaturally" . The man can not be effectively closed in on itself while it is valuable to God: Thanks it provides access to a practice of the theological virtues which transcend the natural human act. This life is the "spiritual life" of man. They are studied in the secunda secundae the Summa Theologica of questions 1 to 46. Ago:
- "Faith" (questions 1 to 16) whose object is the Truth Revealed ;
- "Hope" (Questions 17 to 22) whose purpose is the eternal bliss;
- "Charity" (Questions 23 to 46) which is friendship with God that makes man a sharer in his own bliss.
The freedom and free will
Is called free a being that is the principle of his actions. Thus the problem of freedom is explicitly involved in the issue of voluntary act. Judgement is in the act of deliberation , which determines if an object is good or not, adapted to the situation, topic, etc.. but this decision is entirely free, absolutely nothing to prevent it. This is of course the rational decision, not the instinctive decision, which is determined by the sensitivity. Indeed, all the passions and inclinations of sensitivity is not fully determine the willingness to go one way rather than another, since they are subject to reason: "As for ways of being superimposed, it is habits and passions that incline an individual in a way rather than another. However, these inclinations themselves are subject to the judgments of reason. Moreover, these qualities still depends on the fact that it is our responsibility to acquire, by causing or having us there, or to reject them. And so, nothing prevents the freedom of decision " . For cons, the man who always follow his desires and passions can not be regarded as free as it acts outside the control of reason and is subjected to his inclinations sensitive purely physiologically determined. Free will is neither a power of intellect or power of appetite, but the two together: "The choice is either a mind that wills, or an appetite that judge" .
Once the intelligence has chosen what she wants to do is the will takes over and is the efficiency of the free act, because it leads to its intended purpose. And the will is called free because it is free of coercion and necessity . Free of coercion because it does not suffer from the kind of violence that are deviating from its inclination, and free of necessity without which it could not be blamed or praised: "Man has free will, or so the advice, exhortations, precepts, prohibitions, rewards and punishments would be in vain " .
Free will is in the choice and the deliberation of the intellect. Thus the act depends on the choice that allows freedom .
The final end of man
Thomas Aquinas, following the Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle develops a moral finalist, that is to say that all human acts are performed for a purpose, and all for the purpose of a supreme end. The moral part is extremely important in volume throughout the work of Thomas Aquinas. Moral acts will indeed allow the man back to God. All contemporary commentators agreed on this point of Etienne Gilson , in St. Thomas moralist, to Jacques Maritain , in Principles of natural morality.
The highest good
The goods are ranked proportionately all assets are willed in a subordinate relation to a supreme good (eg health for the possibility of social development or acquisition of a technique to use it to good use as the soldier learns swordplay in order to kill his enemy), so relative to each other, and that because he is a supreme end which is intended to absolutely, which is sort of the top of the analogy : the soldier killed his enemy to win the battle, a victory that will live in peace, which will allow citizens to flourish, and so on. that until a final end to be desired for itself, and not for anything else. Without it, nothing would be subordinate and all goods are of equal worth. All other things are wanted only for this purpose: "Everything that man wants or desires, it is necessary either for its ultimate end. " . This final end can be freely chosen, but it is most often more or less conscious and more or less determined by physiological and psychological. Experience also shows that all men, they recognize it or not, he had clearly aware or not, all interact to a goal they want an absolute and underlying all their actions and the miser acts only for money, for some artists it's for beauty, for Hitler it is vital for the expansion of German race, for a Marxist revolution is to the material power of the proletariat. However, a man can be only one ultimate end "it is impossible that the will of a man goes along to various objects as ultimate ends" .
Happiness and bliss
Thomas Aquinas places the supreme good of the natural moral life, in what he calls the happiness and the supreme good of life in the supernatural beatitude , that is to say the knowledge of God . It's the end of all men: "men and other rational beings . Why this purpose alone, then it is clear that all men do not agree on their goals? Because the formal reason is the ultimate end filling perfectly well, and only God is perfect filling . As the supernatural life is infinitely larger than the natural life of bliss (the "perfect happiness" by commentators) is a much much more perfect than happiness (called "imperfect happiness" by commentators).
All assets are related to happiness and bliss
St. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1224/1225-1274)"Happiness is the ultimate end of man is at the top of the property; more a thing is close to this end, the higher its rank among human goods. " . This quote could not be clearer: happiness is the ultimate and final end of man. Indeed, all goods have to that happiness, by way of relativity: health is to have a good social life, which in turn enables the development, which in turn allows happiness, knowledge, good in itself, which is the perfection of intelligence, you can enjoy what is known: that enjoyment makes them happy, etc ... The examples can be extended to all goods and all transcendental perfections. And take their property value by their proximity to the happiness.
Thomas Aquinas explains why certain goods below which one is deprived cause more inconvenience than the loss of a greater good "it is in the nature of a deprivation to thwart the will. However, each man does not always appreciate his willingness property according to the truth: there is one thing to deprive a large fine without thwart the will provided that it has less reason to sentence. And their decision is distorted by the immediacy of deprivation than by their non-ability of abstraction. So do not be rich, financially speaking, causes more pain than not to be virtuous, for example, and "this is why they often see fishermen enjoy physical health and have the fortune of the outer virtuous men are sometimes private " . Et cette fausse injustice leur cause plus de peine que la privation mme de la vertu car ils ne considrent pas la hirarchie des biens sa vritable valeur.
On voit bien que cette considration de la hirarchie des biens se fait sous le mode intellectif, et que seule la raison permet d'en rendre compte. Le statut de la raison prend alors une nouvelle dimension. Ce n'est plus seulement la facult de juger ce qui est bon ou non, mais aussi d'embrasser la vie tout entire par une objectivit abstractive et de replacer chaque bien sa vritable place, celle qui est voulu par l'ordinateur de toutes choses et qui constitue l'essence mme du Bien unique partir duquel tous les autres biens prennent de la valeur : Dieu.
L'Amour
La notion d'amour chez Thomas d'Aquin pose problme aux commentateurs : certains considrent qu'il faut placer Thomas dans les conceptions physiques de l'amour, comme le pre Rousselot ; d'autres, comme E. Gilson, le place plutt dans la conception extatique , c'est--dire qui nous fait sortir de notre tre ; ou bien encore comme le P. Geiger qui considre que l'amour est une notion qui touche le bien dans toute son universalit .
L'ouverture sur l'autre : l'amour comme fondement
L'amour ( , , , ) est un mouvement interne ou externe de l'tre humain. Il comprend en lui toutes les formes d'apptits, qu'ils soient sensibles ou rationnels, mais ne se rduit pas eux.
L'amour et le bien sont corrlatifs : tous deux sont des notions analogiques, des transcendantaux, et Dieu les possde en absolue plnitude : ce qui veut dire que la batitude , en tant que connaissance de Dieu, est le Bien suprme de l'homme, mais que l'amour de Dieu est partie constituante de la batitude, car c'est le propre de l'homme que d'aimer ce qu'il juge comme bien, et plus encore lorsque ce bien le dpasse infiniment.
L'amour est d'abord une passion, en tant qu'il est le principe premier de tout mouvement de la volont ou d'une facult apptitive quelconque vers le Bien : l'amour a rapport au bien en gnral, qu'il soit possd ou non. C'est donc l'amour qui est par nature l'acte premier de la volont ou de l'apptit . L'amour, en sa dimension de principe des actes humains, constitue ds lors le fondement de toute morale. Il n'y a rien qui se fasse sans amour, et il n'y a pas de bien s'il n'est aim auparavant. L'amour est donc principe de l'agir en gnral. Nous ne pourrons ici nous tendre sur l'amour en ses cas particuliers, car il ya en fait autant de qualits d'amour que de qualits de bien : l'amour porte vers le bien, mais reoit sa dignit du bien vers lequel il porte.
L'amour volontaire n'est donc pas dtermin uniquement par le bien individuel et goste, mais par le Bien et l'tre en gnral : l'amour est donc dans un lien de dpendance avec la connaissance. C'est ainsi qu'il devient un amour rationnel, ou volontaire (il se nomme alors ) . Il devient un pouvoir psychologique autonome par rapport l'apptit sensible : ce dernier n'tant un bien qu'en vertu de l'ordre ontologique du sujet, c'est--dire de ce qui lui convient en propre, alors que la est une ralit psychologique autonome car reposant sur l'intellect et le libre-arbitre. Il en rsulte que cet amour est amour de soi mais essentiellement amour objectif ; il surpasse l'apptit, le dsir ou la convoitise, tout en les incluant. Dans cette perspective, un amour dsintress ne fait aucune difficult ; et un amour dsintress prend son objet dans sa qualit de bien honnte.
L'amour pousse donc au bien, en sa qualit de puissance motrice ; il permet une constance dans la recherche vertueuse du bien, en sa qualit de puissance apptitive rationnelle, et il permet d'ouvrir la sphre purement individuelle de la recherche et de la jouissance du bien une sphre largie l'autre, individu ou communaut, en tant qu'aim. La notion d'amour introduit galement de l'altrit et de l'thique ( ) dans les comportements moraux. En effet, aimer quelque chose dans l'ordre du bien honnte, c'est lui vouloir du bien : l'amour consiste principalement en ce que l'ami veut du bien celui qui aime . Le bien particulier est infrieur au bien politique ou communautaire, et plus encore, il y tend : Le bien particulier tend au bien commun comme sa fin () de l, le bien de la communaut est plus divin que celui de l'individu . Ainsi le bien se diffuse travers toutes les ralits qui entourent l'tre humain sous la modalit de l'amour (c'est tout le sens du de Thomas d'Aquin), et prend par l mme le rle de principe fondateur de toute sociabilit et de toute vie communautaire : la vie de famille, la vie sociale, la vie politique, et mme tout rapport singulier d'un individu l'autre, qui ont une vise constructive et bonne, reposent sur l'amour en tant qu'il est partage de bien (bien matriel, utile, agrable, intellectuel, intress, vertueux, jouissif, etc.).
La charit fondement des vertus morales
L'amour devient charit ( ) lorsqu'elle est une vertu thologale, c'est--dire une vertu qui vient et qui a pour objet Dieu. Thomas d'Aquin se situe donc sur un registre surnaturel lorsqu'il parle de la charit. Les vertus morales ne peuvent exister sans la charit . C'est donc que des vertus naturelles, immanentes la nature humaine (les vertus morales) ont un fondement surnaturel en tant qu'elles reposent sur la charit, qui est une vertu thologale . La charit est une amiti avec Dieu, c'est--dire une rciprocit fonde sur la Grce. Fondamentalement, elle repose sur le fait que Dieu doit un jour partager sa batitude avec l'homme . Nous nous trouvons encore une foi dans le registre du partage et de l'ouverture, qui est permis par l'amour. De plus, elle ajoute une certaine perfection l'amour passion ( ) .
Politics
La conception politique de Thomas d'Aquin se dessine de faon trs nette dans son uvre, bien qu'il n'ai pas consacr un ouvrage ce sujet. Sa rflexion politique est bien sre nourrie par celle d'Aristote, notammen t when you consider that Thomas said the book on policy, or policy. The policy is rooted in the issue of community of nature among human beings, hence the question of friendship (philia in Greek), and develops to the sphere of divine and religious community.
The community is natural to human beings: his political conception is therefore based on a naturalistic anthropology. Indeed, Thomas endorsed this saying of Aristotle . But most of the link family community, which is natural par excellence, the political connection is the reason . And this political institution in the city has seen the good, reasonably described: "The city continues some good. " . More importantly, it continues the supreme good, "More importantly, it seeks the best of human goods", that is to say, the divine good: everything in the city must allow the individual to practice his religion well , and must seek the good of the community, which is above the individual good. The common good must not be sacrificed to the good one: "In many one should not sacrifice one of the community: the common good is always more divine than the individual. "
Each individual is an organic part of everything that constitutes society and is of the essence of an organized structure that everyone does not occupy the same place and there is a hierarchy between the elements, although society is the same property: one of all.
Seeing and transmit
Contemplation, an activity superior to all others, is the Dominican Republic. More, the Dominican is what he looked forward to others:
"Indeed, it is best to inform as to shine only, so is it best to convey to others what you have looked only to contemplate. "- Summa Theologica , IIa, IIae, qu. 188, art. 6
This quote summarizes the dynamic intellectual and religious Thomas Aquinas: the fruits of contemplation and may be shared with others. Thus the theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas, teaching and seeking, only to deepen, scan and share the fruits of the knowledge of God, which are the most perfect fruit in this world and another. To share with others the fruits of contemplation, by the preaching and teaching, it is not sharing his life and his contemplative life is adding up the two: life derives, to some extent, of the contemplative life and it coordinates .
The vocabulary scholasticism of Thomas Aquinas
St. Thomas Aquinas, Doctor of the Catholic Church, Gentile da Fabriano , 1400 , 49 x 38 cm Milan , Pinacoteca di BreraThe has course on " Concepts of Aristotelian-Thomistic metaphysics. "Some terms are important and commonly used by Thomas Aquinas, their meaning has changed significantly over the centuries that separate us from Thomas Aquinas. They come mostly from the vocabulary of Aristotle , Thomas Aquinas was clarified.
Being (ens or esse)
The being is the fundamental concept of Thomistic philosophy. But the ontology developed by Thomas Aquinas is complex and needs to consider several different aspects of this term.
- The ens in the direction of the concept (conceptus entis) means to be thought in all its generality, or rather the act of being common to all beings, after abstraction. This is the central concept of the whole metaphysical Thomas. The being is said in analog , that is to say that he prioritizes various degrees depending beings. God, as the top of the analogy of being, is ipsum esse, the pure act of existence, one in which merges the essence and existence .
- The esse is the act of a being to exist.
- The essentia or quidditas is one of the meanings of the word being as a thing what it is: it is the essence of the thing, that intelligence will reach the thing by the method of abstraction.
- Finally being merges with the reality as it is thought (being of reason) or as it is simply (being real).
The causes (causa)
This theory of four causes comes from Aristotle. It was part of the baggage of the Schools of Theology at Paris XIII century before the arrival of Thomas who went to their account and deepens it.
- The "material cause" is what the subject is likely to receive a determination;
- the "formal cause" is that in which the effect is, so it is what it is;
- the "efficient cause" is what makes change;
- the " final cause "is that to which the change occurs.
The first two cases are called "intrinsic" in that they constitute the subject in his very being, and the last two cases are called "extrinsic" because they are not constitutive of the being of the thing. The cause is the subject of several other awards at Thomas Aquinas (cause first and second, because per se and per accidents, instrumental cause, because discretionary, because copy, etc.).
Matter and Form (materia and forma)
These concepts are also set to Aristotle :
- The "form" is the intrinsic and constitutive principle of a being, what makes a thing what it is. For example, it gives human nature to a bodily matter. She is also the principle of species and it is what Thomas Aquinas called the soul. This concept applies particularly to discuss the substance of a thing.
- "Matter" is what gets to be in a form, that is to say, any determination.
Act and power (potentia and actus)
These terms are also Aristotle, they have many meanings:
- The "act" means the completion of any kind (moral, ontological, etc.). To be one thing: it is taken as meaning the entelechy. But it also means that even exist or simply to act.
- The "power" means that which can be determined by a deed or a passage to the act. It represents or reveals a kind of ontological incompleteness but may potentially receive an improvement. There are powers active and passive powers .
Substance and accidents (accidents and substantia)
- The "substance" is being exists by itself, which is the subject in its most irreducible. The first substance is the individual (eg Socrates) and the second is the nature of substance (eg man).
- The "accident" is what is "added" to a substance, as it can exist by itself, but that the accident can only exist with a substance. Many accidents can be distinguished: time, place, relationships, etc..
Intellect passive and active intellect
- The "passive intellect" (or possible) is the activity of the intellect conditioned by the reception of sensory images, is somehow a passive activity . It is a kind of tabula rasa which is printed the images extracted by the sensitive direction.
- The "intellect" is the operation of the intellect that will abstract the characteristics of sensitive sensory images . It separates the universal element of the singular element that provide it with meaning.
Method
Thomas Aquinas remained faithful to the method which was instilled by Albert the Great :
"In matters of faith and morals, we must believe Augustine of Hippo more than the philosophers, if they disagree, but if we talk about medicine , I defer to Galen and Hippocrates , and if s is a question of the nature of things is to Aristotle that I speak, or some other expert. "Writing the Summa Theologica , however, shows that even in matters of faith and morals, he preferred to make his own compilation of arguments and its conclusions than relying on Augustine, but never to have directly contradicted. We also know that he also had always criticized the view of Augustine who mocked one could believe in the theory of the antipodes as a result of the roundness of the Earth taken by Aristotle.
Recourse to the authorities patristic is nevertheless significant in the work of Thomas Aquinas, in accordance with the general method of scholasticism, where the arguments are often introduced or supported by authorities .
Posterity
Main articles: Thomism and Neo-Thomism.The first conviction of some of his theses in 1277 to the final dismissal of the convictions in 1325, the work of Thomas raises major theological and philosophical debates at first within the Dominican order. Then, the authorities in order to the defense of Thomas for political reasons and ecclesiological debate pitted more Dominicans and Franciscans. In 1321, the Divine Comedy , Dante Thomas Aquinas gave the first place among philosophers theologians. The theological and philosophical arguments are intense, including discussions between Thomists Scotists (school of John Duns Scotus ), Nicolas of Cusa and William of Ockham.
The cons-Reformation Catholic Council of Trent in 1545 causing a substantial return to work of Thomas Aquinas, to fight against the theses of Luther , who rejected the use of reason and of ancient philosophy. The Summa Theologica is very late and a reference manual for theological studies. The School of Salamanca , with commentators such as Francisco Suarez , Cardinal Cajetan , who commented on the Summa Theologica and attempts to bring Luther to the Catholic faith with arguments Thomists propels Thomas Aquinas to meet the intellectual scene. Pope Leo XIII in his encyclical Aeterni Patris writes, "the Fathers of Trent wished that, in the midst of their meeting with the book of divine Scripture and the decrees of the supreme pontiffs, on the altar itself, the Summa of Thomas Aquinas was laid open, to be able to draw advice, reasons, oracles. "
In the seventeenth century , the founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), Ignatius of Loyola , chose Thomas Aquinas as the official doctor of his order and directs his teaching at all levels.
The nineteenth century saw the rebirth Thomism, after two centuries of partial abandonment, to fight against modernism , the idealism , the positivism and materialism , especially since the encyclical Aeterni Patris ("On the Restoration in Catholic schools of Christian philosophy in the spirit of the Angelic Doctor ") of Pope Leo XIII in 1879 who advocated a return to Thomas Aquinas: that is what we will call the neo-Thomism. Pope entrusts the task of Dominicans publish a scholarly edition and critical works of Thomas Aquinas, basing the Leonine Commission. On August 4, 1880 Leo XIII declared the patron saint of education in Catholic schools (Cum hoc sit). On June 29, 1914, in his motu proprio, Pope Pius X asked Catholic philosophy professors to teach the principles of Thomism in universities and colleges this year, the Roman Congregation of Seminaries and Universities promulgated a list of 24 Thomistic theses considered Normaa directiv tuta: what are the arguments of 1914. Born and the neo-Thomism. The main figures of this revival include Jacques Maritain , who proposed a return to philosophical realism of Thomas Aquinas and John Daujat , who developed the teaching of Thomistic philosophy, notably by creating the Center for Religious Studies. The twentieth century also saw a revival of academic studies on Thomas Aquinas, is centered on his Philosophy ( Etienne Gilson ) on his thought in context Scholastic ( MD Chenu and JP Torell). The Dominicans founded the Bulletin Thomist. Some, like Joseph Marshall , trying to reconcile the theories of Kant and those of Thomism by basing the course called transcendental Thomism.
Since the Council Vatican II , Thomas Aquinas became a key figure (but not required) to the intellectual life of the Catholic Church. Contemporary philosophy by returning to the study of medieval philosophers, takes into account the increasing importance of Thomas Aquinas .
Some of papal approval of the "Common Doctor"
- Encyclical Aeterni Patris of Leo XIII 1879;
- The encyclical of Pius XI Studiorum Ducem, 1923, is dedicated to him.
- Encyclical Humani Generis , 1950: Let the reason be made as appropriate and 'filled with the sound philosophy received from the Christian centuries. " 'If we have grasped this, we understand why the Church demands that future priests are trained in disciplines philosophical method, doctrine and principles of St. Thomas Aquinas'.
- Decree Optatam Totius (No. 16) of Vatican II on the formation of priests, demand to be taken for the master.
Quotes, reviews, anecdotes
Also on Wikibooks the quotes "Thomas Aquinas".
- During his studies, his classmates called him "dumb ox" because of his corpulence, his discretion, his humility, which could pass for shyness and his taste for solitary reflection. His master Albert the Great , learning that his classmates called him well, said: "When the roar beef, it will shake the West! "Posterity considerable of his young student gave him reason .
- Two novices wanting joking told him to look at the window, as we saw, they said, an ox stealing. Thomas moved to the window, and answered them: "I would have been less surprised to see a cow fly a religious lie" (sins of the nomenclature by identifying when a venial who was called the happy lie ) .
- One day, someone asked him if he wanted to possess all the riches of Paris. Thomas Aquinas said: "I would rather have the manuscript of Chrysostom on St. Matthew. " .
- While living in Naples (1272-1274), one of his colleagues claimed to have seen levitating in front of the crucifix telling him: "Thou hast written well of me, Thomas , what do you want as a reward ? "Thomas Aquinas would have said," Lord anything other than you. " On another occasion, on or around December 6, 1273, he had an ecstasy while celebrating mass. After that he stopped writing and dictating. In his secretary, who was worried he replied: "I can not. Everything I have written seems to me like straw compared to what I saw. "
Works
The tomb of St. Thomas Aquinas in the church of the convent of the Jacobins in Toulouse.For a catalog dated and reasoned criticism see Jean-Pierre Torrell , Initiation to St. Thomas Aquinas (1993), Paris, Cerf , p. 479-525, with updates to the second edition (2002).
For more information see:
Main article: Works by Thomas AquinasAbout the critical editions of Thomas Notes
Bibliography
The bibliography of Thomas Aquinas is overstaffed. It is useless to mention everything. Eventually, the contributors to this article will offer a choice of instructional texts, useful and scientifically proven.
- Hubert Jacobs, SJ, professor emeritus at University of Namur and the Institute for Theological Studies in Brussels. Bibliography for the study of St. Thomas in French language publications issued since taking over for sixty years (not exhaustive) , Brussels, Institute for Theological Studies, Namur, Facults Notre-Dame de la Paix, 2010. This publication presents, in paper format at the Library of cddr (Grade: VII. 45 A 2). It is available on its website in PDF format. See: htpp: / / www.fundp.ac.be / universities / libraries / CDCR / bibliographies
- Jean-Pierre Torrell, OP, "The Status of Thomistic Studies, Religious Science Research 91 (2003) 343-371 Life of St. Thomas according to the authors of the Middle Ages
- William of Tocco, History of St. Thomas Aquinas (Life written for the canonization of Thomas. This book offers the latest state of the French translation of the text (1323) with introduction and notes by Claire Le Brun-Gouanvic). - Paris : Editions du Cerf, coll. "Christian Wisdom", 2005. - 223 p., 20 cm. - ( ISBN 2-204-07729-1 ). - Original title: Sancti Thomae de Aquino Ystoria.
Introductions to reading Thomas Aquinas
- Jean-Pierre Torrell , OP, Introduction to St. Thomas Aquinas. His person and his work, Introduction 1. (Ancient and Medieval Thought, Vestigia 13), Paris-Fribourg, Editions du Cerf - Editions Universitaires, 1993, 2nd ed. 2002, XVIII-650. see site.
- Rene-Antoine Gauthier, St. Thomas Aquinas, Sum against the Gentiles, Introduction, Academic Publishing, Paris, 1993. Historical introduction to the reading of the Summa against the Gentiles.
- Michel Node-Langlois, The Vocabulary of St. Thomas Aquinas, 1999
Trial of synthesis of the thought of Thomas Aquinas
- Stanislas Breton , Saint Thomas d'Aquin, Paris, Seghers, 1965. Philosophical approach to a thinker of the late twentieth century, just outside of schools and mainstream.
- Etienne Gilson , The Thomism: An Introduction to the philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas , published VRIN, 6th edition: 2005. ( ISBN 2-7116-0297-4 ). Test synthesis, more philosophical than theological, thought of Thomas Aquinas, which seeks to identify all the points required for the presentation of a philosophical system consistent with the historical thinking of Thomas.
- Jacques Maritain , The Angelic Doctor, Paris, Paul Hartmann, 1929. Manifesto of neo-Thomism Catholic of the twentieth century.
- Antonin Sertillanges Dalmatia , St. Thomas Aquinas (2 volumes), Paris, 1910. Presentation of the major themes of Thomistic thought, seen from the perspective of a systematic theology philosophically open.
Personal readings of the thought of Thomas Aquinas and extension
- GK Chesterton , Saint Thomas of the Creator, 1933. Work of a writer with the life and thought of Thomas Aquinas in a way
literary and spiritual.
- Thierry-Dominique Humbrecht, Read St. Thomas Aquinas, 2007. Popular book by an expert on Thomas Aquinas.
- Marie-Dominique Philippe , Saint Thomas Dr., witness of Jesus. Saint Paul, Fribourg-Paris, 1992, ISBN 2-85049-501-8. Very personal introduction to the philosophical, theological and spiritual Thomas Aquinas.
Other
- Marie-Dominique Chenu , St. Thomas Aquinas and Theology, VRIN edition.
- R. Joly, Quarta through the Summa Theologica, 1920, Ghent
- Louis-B. Geiger, OP, The Problem of Love in Saint Thomas Aquinas, Albert the Great conference, 1952, editions VRIN
- Umberto Eco , the aesthetic problem with St. Thomas Aquinas, VRIN editions. Doctoral thesis in philosophy of Umberto Eco, 1970
- Ghislain Lafont , Structure and method in the "Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas Aquinas, Cerf, 1996
- Johannes B. Lotz, Martin Heidegger and Thomas Aquinas, PUF, 1975
- A. Wohlman, Thomas Aquinas and Maimonides. An exemplary dialogue, Cerf, Paris, 1988.
- Mickal Truth, St. Thomas Aquinas player of the Liber Vitae of Fontis Avicebron, p. 443-448, in the Journal of Philosophical and Theological Science, No. 86, Paris, Vrin, 2002.
- Pinckaers Servais , The Sources of Christian morality, his method, its content, its history, Cerf, 1993, Part 1 Ch VIII "morality of St. Thomas Christian Is', p. 180-202, Part 2 Ch IX 3 "The Moral Theology of St. Thomas', p. 230-249, and any third party who expounds the doctrine. University study on the moral teaching of Thomas Aquinas.
- Jean-Marie Vernier, Theology and Metaphysics of Creation in St. Thomas Aquinas, Peter Tqui, editor, Belief and knowledge collection, 1995, ( ISBN 2-7403-0310-6 )
- R. Pouivet, After Wittgenstein, St. Thomas, PUF, 1997. On receipt record of Thomas Aquinas.
- S.-M. Barbellion, evidence of the existence of God, For a replay of the five ways of St. Thomas Aquinas, Cerf, 1999.
- Jean-Francois Courtine , Inventio analogiae: Metaphysics and Ontotheology, Vrin, Issues and Controversies, 2005. For a discussion of the doctrine of analogy in the context of Martin Heidegger and the critique of the Ontotheology.
- Cyrille Michon, Thomas Aquinas and the controversy over "The Eternity of the World, GF Flammarion, Paris, 2004.
Comments philosophical works of Thomas Aquinas
- Cajetan , in Commentaria Summam theologiam, ed. H. Prosper (Lyrae, 1892), reprinted in the Editio leonina Thomas Aquinas, Vol. IV-XII, analytical commentary on each article of the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas.
- Alain de Libera , "Thomas Aquinas. Somme against the Gentiles," Gradus philosophical, dir. L. Jaffro and M. Labrune, Flammarion, GF 773, Paris, 1995, p. 765-783 Internal Links
- Leonine Commission Dominican commissioned by the popes since Leo XIII , published an edition of the works of Thomas Aquinas, based on manuscripts and historical criticism the most rigorous.
Sources of his thought
- The faith of the Catholic Church expressed by the symbols of faith, the decrees of popes and councils.
- The Biblical Revelation Source first, main and fundamental of all the work of Thomas Aquinas.
- The Fathers of the Church. Thomas knew and always handled the patristic corpus available at the time. Many texts were not available to him or were misidentified. He nevertheless expressed interest outstanding for this type of source, constantly in search of a richer and better documentation translated (see in particular the undertaking of the Catena aurea).
- The common teaching of the schools of the Middle Ages, and received criticism
- Plato , his views are known indirectly through the neo-Platonic.
- Aristotle , the main non-Christian philosopher Thomas resumed and modified in many ways and he is reading through:
- Reviews of Averroes and Avicenna
- The neo-Platonic philosophy, especially Proclus.
- Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite , which gives it the authority of a Church Father, immediate disciple of St. Paul Denis is among the authors most cited by Thomas.
- St. Augustine , the main source of thought of all the Western Christian thought until the late Middle Ages.
- Albert the Great , master of St. Thomas Aquinas, who did not always follow them faithfully.
Influences
- Thomism , the current of thought that refers to Thomas Aquinas.
- Neo-Thomism , the revival of Thomistic thought in the nineteenth century with Leo XIII.
- School of Salamanca , School of the sixteenth century in Spain that was organized around the theories of Thomas Aquinas.
- Francisco Surez , who synthesized the thinking of Thomas Aquinas and founded the Thomism in the sixteenth century.
- Cajetan , Cardinal has produced a commentary on the Summa Theologica is a reference in Thomistic studies.
- Joseph Marshall , neo-Kantian who tried to reconcile Kant and Thomas Aquinas in the twentieth century by founding the school of thought called "transcendental Thomism".
- Jacques Maritain , the main actor of neo-Thomism of the twentieth century , which interacts with the existentialist philosophy.
- Etienne Gilson and Marie-Dominique Chenu , the two leading commentators of Thomas Aquinas of the twentieth century.
- January Salamucha, Peter Geach , Elizabeth Anscombe , Anthony Kenny and John Haldane created during the "analytical Thomism" ((en) Analytical Thomism ), a sort of reconciliation between Ludwig Wittgenstein and Thomas Aquinas, in the tradition of analytic philosophy in twentieth century.
Theological Issues
- Christian theologians famous
- Quinquae viae
- Christian philosophy
- Catholic Theology
- Encyclical
- Fides et Ratio , John Paul II, 14 September 1998 on the relationship between faith and reason ,
- Aeterni Patris , on the relationship between faith and reason, Leo XIII , August 4 i/1879 "alt =" 1879 "> 1879, on Thomas Aquinas and theology Scholastic
- The theses of 1914 : 24 Thomistic theses that the Church supports.
- The issue of Thanks
External Links
- The works of Thomas Aquinas available online at the Library of Editions du Cerf ( Dominicans )
- Dominicans of Toulouse School of Theology Website of the Journal Thomist
- Corpus thomisticum toolset for researchers and all the works in Latin ( University of Navarra )
- Official website of the Pontifical Academy of Saint Thomas Aquinas
References
- Notes
- "Nihil in intellectu quod is non sit prius in sensu." (Thomas Aquinas, De Veritate, Questio 2, art. 3, 19 argumentum. On receipt of this saying out of the Thomistic school, see J. Cranefeld "On the Origin Of The Phrase Nihil in intellectu quod is non prius in sensu fuer", Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences (Oxford), 1970 XXV (1) :77-80; first page available online ).
- In reference to the order of the universe that God directed toward Thomas Aquinas takes the Greek cosmology, teleology and Aristotelian ethics.
- On this point, it should be noted that Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure, both contemporaries, both doctors of the Church, have absolutely not the same methodology. Thomas part of the world to go to God in what He is for us as God by Bonaventure to analyze how it manifests: Emmanuel Falque, St. Bonaventure and the entry of God in theology, VRIN editions, 2000 and the section of the Summa Theologica, PART I, Question 2, Article 1: "the existence of God is it obvious by itself? "Thomas answered indirectly when to Bonaventure.
- Note that the Summa against the Gentiles do not take this pattern of exitus Reditus
- In fact, angels have no direct access to material realities: it does not abstract knowledge of sensitive intelligence and does not progress by discursive.
- Catholic tradition will resume later this theme to describe the loss of nature includes Adam and consequences of the fall of Lucifer. See Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 110, art. 1, resp.
- This remark is constantly documented by the Bible , especially during the Annunciation. See contra Gentiles, III, 80
- On this particular point that contemporary Thomists are confronted with the phenomenology , see Journal of the University of Louvain, Tome 51, 1953, p. 374 to 408 on the external senses in Thomas Aquinas, see also, in the work of Thomas himself: Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 78, art. 3, sed contra
- The scholastic vocabulary of Thomas Aquinas for the difference active intellect, passive intellect
- The realism of ideas is included in an overall epistemological realism in the thought of Thomas Aquinas. JP Torell, in Sources insist on this point, Jacques Maritain , The Degrees of Knowledge in a contemporary way back epistemology of Thomas Aquinas. And Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 85, art. 2, resp.
- The best presentation of the analogy of being located in De Potentia Dei, qu. 10, art. 4
- Keeping in mind that matter and form are used in their senses Aristotelian scholasticism rather see (refer to the short chapter on scholastic terms ). Sum and cons of the Gentiles, II, LXXII
- For a clear exposition of hylomorphism adopted by Thomas Aquinas, see and read LB Geiger, think with Thomas Aquinas, CERF, 1997, p. 6 ff
- This conception of the notion of virtue is clearly inherited from Aristotle in the Nicomachean Ethics and that Thomas knew he commented. Etienne Gilson, texts on morality, and VRIN Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 55, art. 3
- In this he departs from Aristotle in adding to the life of man a supernatural hand in his final end and is not the end of earthly happiness unique and award against the Gentiles, IV, I
- We find the final design and naturalist of the ancient Greeks but transposed into a Christian world: everything that is closer to God will be even more goodness where, moreover, the doctrine of the analogy of being; Commentary on Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics and award against the Gentiles, III, CXLI
- One example is the perfect knowledge of Thomas Aquinas had Heidegger , or courses Brentano on intentionality in Thomas Aquinas that he was the young Husserl
- References
- The date of birth is derived from the approximate age of his death, given late in the context of the canonization process. As often in the Middle Ages, a specific vintage is difficult to determine, cf. Torell J.-P., Introduction 1, 1993, chap. 1, p. 1.
- This castle is now in the province of Frosinone , JP Torell, Introduction 1, 1993, chap. 1, p. 2
- John Chelini, Religious History of the Medieval West, Hachette, 1991, p. 320
- JP Torell, Introduction to Thomas Aquinas, Volume 1, p. 27 and p. 32.
- JP Torell, Introduction to Thomas Aquinas, Volume 1, p. 27-52
- JP Torell, Introduction 1, chap. IX, p. 288
- For detailed explanations JP Torell, Introduction 1, p. 288-326
- Letter from the University of Paris on 2 May 1274.
- In his first biographers, including the Ystoria sancti Thome de Aquino William of Tocco, which dates from 1323
- Introduction to the I st part of the Summa Theologica Editions du Cerf, 2004, Marie-Joseph Nicolas, P. 24
- M. Morard, "Thomas Aquinas, a man of flesh and bones as" Seat of Wisdom, t. 30, 1989, p. 37-54 and J.-P. Torell, Sources 19 (1993) 3, p. 97-110.
- Humbert de Romans, Opera de vita regularis, ed. Berthier, t. II, p. 260; Fr Mandonnet (Thomistic Journal, XXIII, 1928, p. 297 ff) describes vividly the exercise of academic major scholastic period, see also P. Quodlibet glorious in literature from 1260 to 1320, Library Thomistic 5 and 21, Paris, 1925 and 1935). On the structure of arguments , and quodlibets quaestiones, see J.-P. Torell, Introduction 1, p. 293-307.
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, Vrin, P. 414-419, especially footnote 26 on page 419.
- Some speak of the beginning of the emancipation of reason over theology, although they are intrinsically Thomas Associates and ordered the same purpose. The question of the existence of a philosophy thomasienne separate from his theology was supported by Etienne Gilson , but this thesis is the subject of a debate is less about the thought of Thomas Aquinas as the history of Thomism cf. tienne Gilson , Thomism, Vrin, 2000, see Introduction: "The doctrinal framework," p. 9-33
- Emile Brehier , History of Philosophy, Volume 1, PUF, 1989, the twelfth century, Chapter VIII, p. 586 and following
- Summa Theologica , Prima pars, issue 2, art. 3 and Etienne Gilson , Thomism, chapter: "The existence of God as a problem" and the doctrinal framework, Paris, Vrin, 1997 25
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, Vrin, 1994 353
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 1: the sacred doctrine
- The argument of double truth requires that accessible by the truths of reason are included in the higher truths of revelation, and they are not contradictory: see award against the Gentiles, I, VII
- In I Sent. Proem. q. 1 a. 1 co. ; Summa Theologica Ia, qu. 1, Art. 2 and see the commentary and philosophical interpretation of the article by JF Courtine, Suarez and the system of metaphysics, this article was presented as the hypothesis of a third term between natural theology and theology Revealed: the two sciences have their foundation in the science of God and the Blessed, which builds the evidence and the preeminence of these two sciences.
- Sum against the Gentiles, I, II
- That is to say that part of philosophy that deals with God / theology which is part of philosophy (Sum. theol. Ia q. 1 to 1 ad 2), Thomas uses once the The term "theologia naturalis" (In Rom. 1, 25). In both cases it means a mode of knowledge by the forces of natural reason, as distinct from knowledge by revelation. See also Etienne Gilson , Thomism, Vrin, 2000, introduction and revelatio.
- JP Torell, Sources 1, p. 68
- Sum against the Gentiles, I, IV and V, see Etienne Gilson , Thomism, introduction, and the revelatum Rvlabile
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 12, art. 13
- Sum against the Gentiles, I, IV, early chapter
- Summa Theologica, Ia, Question 1, Article 10
- we continue this formula Etienne Gilson in Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000, see the end of the Introduction (last paragraph)
- The Bible , Exodus, III, 3, 14. According to versions of the Bible, this phrase (interpretable as "I am the true God, as opposed to other gods") is also translated as "I am who I am" (refusal to publicize his own name), "I am who I am "(I'm here with you, as you'll see). Ref. The Bible - Old Testament, trans. World, 1985.
- The origin of this evidence dates back to Aristotle: Physics, VIII, 5, 311 Metaphysics, XII, 6, 1071 b, 3
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, "The existence of God as a problem"
- Marie-Dominique Chenu , St. Thomas Aquinas and Theology, and Edition VRIN Summa Theologica I, qu. 3, art. 1, resp.
- Summa Theologica I, qu. 3, art. 2, resp. or Contra Gentiles I, 18
- Summa Theologica I, qu. 3, art. 4, respectively.
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 27, s. 5, concl.
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 28: the divine relations
- Martin Heidegger , The Constitution of onto-theological metaphysics (1957) in Issues I, Gallimard
- Etienne Gilson , the being and essence, VRIN editions, 2000, especially Chapter III, Johannes B. Lotz, Martin Heidegger and Thomas Aquinas, PUF, 1975
- Summa Theologica, the prologue of Part III
- Summa Theologica, III, qu. 1, Art. 1, sed contra
- Summa Theologica, III, qu. 1, Art. 1, respondeo
- Summa Theologica, III, qu. 1, Art. 2
- Refer profitably MD Chenu, Introduction to the study of St. Thomas Aquinas, Chapter IX
- Summa Theologica, PART I, qu. 2, introduction
- Summa Theologica, Ia, (q 50-64) and others on angelology Thomas Aquinas, see a profit to Etienne Gilson, Thomism
- J. Turmel, Histoire de angelology, Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 50, art. 1
- ibid.
- In spirit. creat. (spiritual creatures), qu. I, Art. 8 ad resp.
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000, Part II: Angels, p. 209 to 224 and Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 50, art. 5 and that. 61, art. 2
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000, Part II: "angels", p. 209 to 224 and Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 108: "angelic hierarchy and order." Thomas Aquinas on this point refers to Dionysius the Areopagite and his angelic hierarchy (the celestial hierarchy)
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000, Part II: "angels", p. 209 to 224 and Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 58: "The mode of angelic knowledge" and Veritate, qu. VIII, art. 10, ad resp.
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 63, art. 1
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 107: "the language of angels"
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 108, art. 8: "Men Are High angelic orders? "
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 111, s.1
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 111, art. 3
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism , VRIN editions, 2000, Part II: "angels", p. 209 to 224 and Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 111, s.4
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, Vrin, 2000, chap. VI, p. 263 and Chapter VII, p. 280: "Knowledge and truth"
- Summa Theologica , PART I, qu. 84, Article 2
- Summa Theologica , PART I, qu. 84, Article 5 |
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 85, art. 4, sed contra
- Peter Rousselot, intellectualism of St. Thomas, library archives of Philosophy, 3rd edition, and Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 79, art. 2, respondeo
- Etienne Gilson, Thomism, Vrin, 2000, chap. VI, p. 263 and Chapter VII, p. 280: Knowledge and Truth, "considered in its most humble human intellect appears as a passive power"
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 84, art. 6, respectively.
- Peter Rousselot, intellectualism of St. Thomas, library archives of Philosophy, 3rd edition, including pages 92, 93, 103, 104 and Etienne Gilson, Thomism, Vrin, 2000, Chapter VII, p. 283, 284
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 79, art. 2, resp.
- John Daujat , Is there a truth?, Tqui editions, the chapter on intellectual knowledge and Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 79, art. 3 and 4
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 85, art. 2, sed contra
- John Daujat , there is a truth, Tqui editions, 2004, On the intellectual knowledge and Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 85, art. 2 and footnote on page 2 of editing du Cerf
- Contre Averroes, preface
- Against Averroes Thomas Aquinas, where he exhibited substantial unity of the human being against interpretations of Aristotle made by Muslim philosophers and theologians, including Averroes and Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 79, s.5
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 79, the powers of the soul (see also the difference intellect passive, active)
- Summa, qu. 85, art. 1: "our intellect he operates by abstracting the intelligible species images? "
- For a modern, with contemporary issues of metaphysics and theology of Thomas Aquinas, see JB Lotz, Martin Heidegger and Thomas Aquinas, PUF, Paris, 1988 36 et seq.
- Sum against the Gentiles, I, XXXIV
- B. Mountains, The doctrine of analogy of being from St. Thomas Aquinas, Paris, Vrin, 1963, repr. 2008 (original version: (en) [pdf] metataphysica.free.fr )
- See, among other texts: Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 13 and that potentia. 10, art. 4 and De Veritate q. 2, a. 1,
- See, among other texts, Cajetan , De nominum analogia, cap.II "analogia ista (analogia attributionis) sit secundum determinationem extrinsecam tantum, ita quod primum tantum analogatorum tale is formaliter, cetera autem talia denominantur extrinsicism.
- Father Rousselot, The Problem of Love in Saint Thomas Aquinas and award against the Gentiles, III, CXVII
- Sum against the Gentiles, III, CXVII
- Sum against the Gentiles, IV, I
- Contra Gentiles, I. III, cap. 1
- Etienne Gilson , texts on morality and cons Sum Gentiles, III, CXXI
- Sum against the Gentiles, II, LVII
- The soul is thus seen as a principle of life (as in Aristotle, rather than as a substance in itself, different from the body, on this point, see Etienne Gilson , Thomism, Vrin, 2000, P. 241 and Sum theological, Ia, qu. 76: the union of soul and body
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 76, art. 3; the problems between the soul and body, see Gilson, Thomism: the soul and body
- Go to Aristotle , see Sum against the Gentiles, II, LVII
- Resumption of Aristotle : De anima, I, and Nicomachean Ethics, I, see Sum against the Gentiles, IV, LXXXVI
- Summa Theologica , Ia IIae, Qu. 1, s.1 and Etienne Gilson , Thomism, part III, chap. 1, p. 315
- Summa Theologica , Ia IIae, Qu. 6, s.1, concl.
- Summa Theologica , Ia IIae, Qu. 6, s.1, concl. and Etienne Gilson , Thomism, part III, chap. 1, the structure of the human act, p. 314-319
- De Veritate, qu. 26, art. 2, ad resp.
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000 400 and Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 22, art. 2 and 3
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 26, art. 1
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 26, art. 2 and see the comments of Cardinal Cajetan in his commentary on the Summa Theologica of that particular section of the Summa Theologica: to find it, see the editions of the Leonine Commission
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000 300 on the concupiscible and irascible, "within the sensitive appetite, which is a kind of power designated by the generic name of sensuality, there are two powers which is both species and the irascible concupiscible "and Summa Theologica, Ia IIae, Qu. 23, s.1
- ( Summa Theologica , Ia, qu. 44, s. 4.)
- ( Summa Theologica , Ia, prologue to question 2)
- that. De Veritate, qu. 13, art. 1 and 2
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000 319 and Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 55, art. 1
- Sum against the Gentiles, III, CXLI
- Summa Theologica, Ia IIae, qu. 55, art. 4, concl. See also the commentary on this article from Cardinal Cajetan
- Etienne Gilson , the legal texts of Thomas Aquinas Summa Theologica, Ia IIae, qu. 56, art. 3, concl
- Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics, II, Lesson 2, # 264
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000 322: "the virtues, good and evil" and Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 58, art. 2
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 57, art. 2
- The commentary of Cajetan for this article is particularly illuminating and Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 57, art. 5
- Summa Theologica, Ia IIae, qu. 62, art. 2, solution. 1
- on faith in Thomas Aquinas, see the papers of the Bulletin No. 20 and Thomistic Studies Journal of neo-scholasticism of the University of Louvain (now called the Revue Philosophique de Louvain), Special Issue on faith in scholastics and Summa Theologica, IIa, IIae, qu. 1, Art. 1
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 14
- Summa Theologica I, qu. 83, Article 1, respondeo
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 83, art. 3, pos.
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 1994, appetite and desire, P. 306
- Summa Theologica I, qu. 83, Article 1, respondeo
- On Liberty, see LB Geiger, Thinking with Thomas Aquinas, CERF, 1997, chapter on realist philosophy and freedom, p. 186 and following review of science or philosophy and theology, Volume 2, 1955, p. 347-407
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 1, Art. 6
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000 429 and others on the last end of man and Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 1, Art. 6, dir
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 1, Art. 5, dir, on the question of the ultimate end, see Jean Daujat , Is there a truth?, chap. on morality
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 1, Art. 8 reps
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 1, Art. 7
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 2000 430 and Sum against the Gentiles, III, CXLI
- Sum against the Gentiles, III, CXLI
- P. Rousselot in the book: For the history of the problem of love in the Middle Ages; Etienne Gilson : The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy, Chapter 14: Love and purpose (esp. p. 278 ff) , P. Geiger: The Problem of Love in S. Thomas Aquinas (Montreal and Paris, 1952)
- On this distinction, see Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 26, art. 3, resp. and Etienne Gilson , Thomism, p. 337 and 338
- Summa Theologica, pars I, Qu. 20, art. 1, concl.
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 26, art. 3, resp. and Etienne Gilson , Thomism, p. 340
- Sum against the Gentiles, III, XC
- Sum against the Gentiles, III, XVII
- Summa Theologica , Ia, IIae, qu. 65, art. 2: the moral virtues can exist without charity? ; On this topic, see the course of Michel Labourdette op Moral Theology on Charity (1959 - 1960)
- ibid. respondeo see end of
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, p. 426
- Summa Theologica, Ia, IIae, qu. 26, art. 3, resp. (End)
- First lesson of the political commentary of Aristotle
- First lesson of the political commentary of Aristotle: For everyone, there are two obvious kinds of communities: the family and the city.
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 1997 400
- F. Brocket, article in the Bulletin Thomist, No. 1 of 2007: Principles of Political Anthropology at St. Thomas Aquinas and the first lesson of the political commentary of Aristotle
- Sum against the Gentiles, III, CXXV, CERF, 1993 686
- Summa Theologica, IIa, IIae, qu. 188, art. 6
- Etienne Gilson , Thomism, VRIN editions, 1997, p.10
- On the problems raised by the doctrine of the analogy of being in Thomas, see the summary work of B. Mountains, The doctrine of analogy of being from St. Thomas Aquinas, Paris, Vrin, 1963, repr. 2008 ((en) [pdf] metataphysica.free.fr ). See the chapter on the analogy of being. Supporters of two competing theories about fundamental point: that of Thomas Aquinas (followed by E. Gilson) and that of Cajetan the sixteenth century , followed by J. Maritain, for example, cf. the Summa Theologica , Ia, qu. 13
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 3, art. 4: The essence and existence in God
- De potentia, qu. 1
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 79, art. 2
- Summa Theologica, Ia, qu. 79, art. 3, sed contra; Aristotle , De anima, V, 1, 430 to 10
- Marie-Dominique Chenu , Introduction to the study of St. Thomas Aquinas, VRIN editions.
- Marie-Dominique Chenu , Introduction to the study of St. Thomas Aquinas, VRIN, chapter on the issue of authorities in the Middle Ages
- Leo XIII , encyclical Aeterni Patris , August 4, 1879
- William of Tocco, History of St. Thomas Aquinas of the Order of Preachers, (written in 1323): Chapter X: The student of St. Albert the Great
- Chesterton , The dumb ox, Chapter 1
- Chesterton , The dumb ox, Chapter 2
- Peyrefitte in Vesuvius to Etna cites this approval and commented: "Word terrible Inquisition came out of that word. "Actually it was more then allowed to cast doubt on the teaching of Thomas.
- William of Tocco, Ystoria sancti Thome, chap. 34
- Minutes of canonization, 79, p. 376-377 and William of Tocco, Ystoria sancti Thome, chap.47 (written in 1323)
- Cf L.-J. Battalion, "PM-D. Chenu and theology of the Middle Ages, "Revue des sciences philosophical and theological, 75, 1991, p. 454 and J.-P. Torrell, Introduction to St. Thomas Aquinas, 2nd ed., P. XII.
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