Synagogue

Stained glass window of the Sixth and I Synagogue , Washington DC

A synagogue (from Greek / "meeting" adapted from the Hebrew "house of assembly") is a place of Jewish worship , but the synagogue as an institution characteristic of Judaism was born with the work of Ezra. She has since become so important that "the synagogue" comes figuratively to designate the system of Judaism, as opposed to "the Church" .

Synagogues usually have a sanctuary, that is to say a big hall of prayer , which are contained in the books of the Torah. They may also include a room for community events. However, they contain mostly small rooms for study, even a Beit Midrash (house of study "): that, although originally intended for worship, the synagogue is in the Jewish history the location of the Talmud Torah , that is to say, the teaching of tradition and the Hebrew language, whether for children or adults. The preponderance of this role is as Philo of Alexandria , then the Jews of Venice and those countries Ashkenazi speaking Yiddish designating the synagogues named "didaskaleia", "scuola" or " (shoul, cf. all. Schule), that is to say " school ". This name is used to denote the synagogues informally, especially in the Ashkenazi community.

Philo of Alexandria and the New Testament also use the term proseuque ancient Greek prayer and place of prayer.

Neither the term nor the concept of a synagogue does not occur in the Pentateuch (though the rabbinic tradition and Philo of Alexandria and Josephus argue that the institution goes back to Moses). The idea of collective worship is not mentioned more, and the only place of worship is described as the Tabernacle , a portable shrine housing the Holy of Holies in the Ark of the Covenant. It is found in the Temple of Solomon , built to house it permanently.

The first mention of a rally outside the Temple is found in Isaiah 8:16 : it is a circle of disciples gathered around Isaiah, to hear him speak of God and Torah. It is also the case in Ezekiel 8:1 , where the elders of Judah gather in the house of Ezekiel. The Psalm 74:8 , a batlan defined as an individual waiving his work to pray, the Mishna teaches that there is a synagogue anywhere a minyan of ten men can at any time to meet to pray. The Acts of the Apostles also indicate that the synagogues that were found in every city existed for many years (Acts 15:21), and cited several, including that of Goodfellas , that of the Cyrenians and of the Alexandrians.

The Talmud mentions several synagogues in Mesopotamia , including that of Nehardea , and over 400 synagogues in Jerusalem before the destruction of the Second Temple (Keritot 105a), whereas the Gospels mention those of Nazareth and Capernaum . Paul preaches in the synagogues of Damascus , Salamis in Cyprus , Antioch , etc..

The fall of the Second Temple amplifies the importance of the synagogue because it will be perpetuated where the rites of the Temple with the crucial exception of sacrifice and it is in the synagogues that may meet the minyan consists of 10 men . The synagogues will then multiply in the Diaspora. That of Alexandria described in the Talmud was huge because it showed the singer to the faithful using flags when to say Amen .

A miniature Temple

The synagogue consistory of Neuilly before marriage

Orthodox synagogues as reformed, refer, at least symbolically, to the sanctuary. Their plan follows, like the Temples in Jerusalem and shtiblekh (The Shtibl a word is Yiddish for a small room used for prayer and study, but less formal than a synagogue ), of the Tabernacle , as described in Parshat Terumah.

A synagogue therefore contains a square where the assembly meets, a candelabra , a high place where worship is held, and a place where holy is kept in an enclosure protected from the outside by a curtain, the testimony given Moses by God:

• the high place, equivalent to the altar at the time of the Tabernacle and Temple, called Tevah among Sephardic and Bimah among Ashkenazi ; is where stands the officiating and that the bed Torah.
  Traditionally in the middle of the prayer, she was moved to the Reformed churches in the front room, facing the faithful, by analogy to the pulpit in churches Protestants.
• In the equivalent of the Holy of Holies , is a cabinet, the equivalent of the Ark of the Covenant. Ashkenazi Jews call it Holy Ark (Aron Haqodesh) , while Sephardic call Heikhal (Temple). It contains the Torah scrolls. These are essential for a gathering place is regarded as a synagogue, otherwise it is a havourah.
  Ever since the Ark as Kohanim (loyal descendant of Aaron , and symbolically completing a few tasks of their ancestors at the time of the Temples) bless the congregation.
  The arch is located on the wall facing Jerusalem, , so to the east ( Mizrachi ) in countries located west of Jerusalem and the West in the countries situated to the east. Many synagogues are oriented toward Jerusalem, although some depart from the rule for structural reasons.
• A candelabrum, an analog of the menorah , is specially lit during services. As one of the branches of the menorah burned continuously at the time of the Temple, a lamp or lantern, usually electric, is currently holding the role of Ner Tamid ( Heb. "eternal flame").

The menorah in the Temple of Jerusalem as depicted on the Arch of Titus in Rome

The menorah was built by the Temple Institute, scheduled for the Third Temple in Jerusalem, exposed near the Western Wall in Jerusalem

• Reminiscent of the Temple of Jerusalem , where a balcony was installed to separate men and women during the Simchat Bet HaShova , men and women are separated by a mekhitsa at prayer in Orthodox synagogues. Often women have a gallery, somewhat hidden from the men where they can attend the service. In the Altneu Schule in Prague , women have a separate room from the main room by a thick wall pierced by narrow openings. At Pfaffenhoffen , Alsace, women behind the men, separated from them by a kind of wooden trellis. This separation has disappeared in the synagogues liberal or reformed, and in most conservative synagogues in the United States where men and women pray side by side.

There is also no more mekhitsa in kenessot Karaites, the origin of this usage does not appear explicitly in the Bible. However, men and women are separated by modesty for prayer, because it contains many prostrations.

• The synagogue contains a space often called geniza ( Heb. "deposit") which are buried texts obsolete or deleted on one of the seven names of God that it is forbidden to erase . Jewish tradition forbids the destruction of and demand they be buried, even though it would be non-canonical texts, or even heretical . The guenizot can conceal archaeological treasures, that of Cairo , which contained 250,000 pieces, including correspondence of Moses Maimonides has been called a "window on medieval Jewish life" , that of the Old Synagogue New home, according to legend, the Golem of the Maharal of Prague .
  The writings of Philo and Josephus suggests that in his day, also were placed in the synagogues of donations to the Temple of Jerusalem .
• It is customary to install the chuppah ( Heb. canopy under which marriages are celebrated), but this custom is not law, and houpah is often installed outdoors, particularly in Israel.

Chair of the prophet Elijah

• Often found in synagogues a "chair of the prophet Elijah , "which is used during circumcisions.

Ancient Synagogues

The earliest known synagogues today are located in the Land of Israel and contemporary with the destruction of the Second Temple. Synagogues previous case centers described God in the Psalms, were destroyed. Those of later centuries were often destroyed by Christians or converted into churches as to Stobi.

The synagogue is the oldest of which being a record would be one of those of Jericho , near the ruins of a palace Hasmonean , guided tour of a mikveh in the vicinity of Wadi Kelt by Professor Ehud Netzer and first-century BCE ^, .

The synagogue is the best known being that of Masada , the fortress overlooking the Dead Sea , though some are older, like the synagogue of Herodion , another fortress of King Herod located 12 kilometers from Jerusalem , where the king s is made bury and the synagogue of Gamla , an ancient capital of the Golan . In Jerusalem, a synagogue is known of the ^first century, that of Theodotus in the city of David. According to his dedication discovery in 1913, it was used to reading the law, its education and accommodation of passengers .

After the destruction of the Temple, the Romans prohibited the construction of synagogues in Palestine. The destruction continues with the revolt of Bar Kochba from 132 to 135 but many Jewish communities continue until the Arab conquest, as illustrated by the presence of over a hundred ruins of synagogues , the the oldest dating from the ^third century. They are mostly located in Galilee , but also on the Golan and in southern countries. They are also found in Beth Shean or Gaza.
One of the most famous synagogues of this period is that of Capernaum , located on Lake Tiberias , probably on the places mentioned in the Gospels. These synagogues often adopt the basilica, Greek vessels, and if they are decorated with Jewish symbols like the menorah , the synagogue at Beit Alfa also exhibits mosaics representing the zodiac , and that of Hammath characters from Greek mythology. At Hamat Gader , on the Yarmouk , the mosaic floors were decorated with geometric motifs. One before the bimah, the most elaborate, with two cypress trees and two lions facing the center and a wreath surrounding a dedication which concludes with these words in Aramaic: "... whose acts of charity are constant everywhere and donated by five gold pieces. May the King of the universe bless their work. Amen. Amen. Selah. "

Synagogues of the Diaspora in the first two centuries.

In the Diaspora, synagogues spread throughout the world Hellenistic or Roman. The earliest known by dedications are those of Schedia about twenty miles from Alexandria, Xnphyris of Nitria and Naucratis and date from the ^third century BC. AD , but there are still those whose ruins are much more recent.
The synagogue at Sardis in Lydia , located in old Roman baths, is one of the largest synagogues known, with its 122 meters long. That of Naro, now Hammam-Lif in Tunisia , has remarkable mosaics.

The synagogue at Dura-Europos in Syria on the Euphrates is it decorated with frescoes. Discovered in 1920, it had been buried under accumulated to fill a siege in 256 when she was only 12 years old. The frescoes that adorn it, now preserved at the Museum of Damascus is in an excellent state of preservation. They depict Biblical scenes with multiple characters, including Moses and Ezekiel , which is rare in a synagogue because of the forbidden images promulgated long ago by the rabbis, even if it appears to be other examples painted on synagogues, as Huseifa or Ma'oz Hayyim. The synagogue at Dura-Europos is the first known synagogue where there seems to be a niche to house the holy ark in the west wall of the synagogue, allowing the faithful to turn westward toward Jerusalem during prayers.

Sometimes distinguished two types of ancient synagogues: the tall buildings without facing Jerusalem as the Ark of the Covenant Torah scrolls were kept in a nearby room to be brought into the prayer room during the reading of the Torah, as in Capernaum and " basilicas "in terms of Roman public buildings, like the Eastern churches with a nave separated by two aisles by columns and apse which faces Jerusalem houses the Torah scrolls .

The mosaic of the zodiac at Beit Alfa (sixth century)

Fresco at Dura-Europos - Book of Esther , Haman leading Mordechai

Mosaic of Hamat Gader (V- VI century ) (exposed to Jerusalem, the Supreme Court)

The ornamentation of ancient synagogues in the Middle East is strongly influenced by the surrounding culture. For example, the frescoes of Dura-Europos and those of later Byzantine Christian churches have a relationship which may suggest common patterns.

In the West, the oldest synagogue known is that of Ostia , the ancient port of Rome. It dates originally from the second part of the ^first century but was enlarged and embellished by later. Built along the shore, it shows its vast proportions and decoration of the richness of the local community. Funerary inscriptions testify to the existence of a dozen synagogues in Rome .

Synagogues of the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, the most important part of the Jewish community settled in Babylonia, then in North Africa and Egypt. The Jewish community remained in the land of Israel is greatly reduced, and subjected to many vicissitudes, the Palestine was occupied in turn by Byzantium, the Arabs and the Crusaders , and again the Arabs. Communities Rabbinites and Karaites a loss and irreplaceable (and fatal to the Karaite predominance in the country) and lose a large number of faithful in the wake of massacres of the First Crusade , during which Jews are gathered in the Great Synagogue of Jerusalem and burned alive. The kenessa buried in Jerusalem dated ^eleventh century and remains a place of annual pilgrimage to the Karaites Sukkot. The synagogues have indeed often been buried in Jerusalem must go down to enter. This helps build a high ceiling without offending Muslims by the construction of buildings that dominate the neighborhood. In 1267 , Ramban restores a ruined house, and in fact a place of worship, which bears his name since the synagogue Ramban where one can still see the inscriptions paleo-Hebrew and Roman vaults. Around her reconstituted the Jewish settlement in Jerusalem, which was destroyed during the capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders.
In Egypt , the Ben Ezra Synagogue in Cairo , which houses the Geniza of Cairo , was built in 1115 by Abraham Ben Ezra of Jerusalem.

Old-New Synagogue of Prague

In Europe, synagogues are becoming more and more the center of Jewish life: in addition to rooms for prayer and study, there is often a mikvah , a furnace for the unleavened bread and rooms for travelers.
In France , the first historical mention of a synagogue is made by Gregory of Tours in its destruction at Clermont-Ferrand in 576. At Rouen , some recognize a synagogue in a building found in the courthouse ^, , and there remains a house that served as a synagogue in the thirteenth ^century to Rouffach in Alsace, which was not yet part of Kingdom of France . Some large synagogues reflecting the growth in some communities. Nothing remains of the synagogues of the brilliant medieval communities of Troyes or Paris. Worms in Germany has long housed the oldest synagogue in Europe. Its construction style novel dated XI ^century.Rashi is studied, and it survived the massacres and destruction of the First Crusade , to be completely destroyed by the Nazis in 1938. Also the oldest synagogue still in use in Europe is it the Old-New Synagogue of Prague -style Gothic , dating from 1270.
The current synagogue Cavaillon is built on the site where the synagogue stood in the fifteenth ^century. It is indeed that time dates the expansion of Jewish communities Venaissin County who served as a refuge for Jews expelled permanently from the kingdom of France in 1394.

Spanish synagogues dating generally from the Reconquista were built by rich communities. They were transformed into Christian churches when power has been strengthened or at least after the expulsion of Jews from Spain. One of them, in Toledo, became the home of El Greco. Other synagogues in Toledo ( Synagogue Santa Maria la Blanca and El Transito Synagogue ) are today museums. The church of Santa Maria la Blanca Seville is also a former synagogue. Barcelona goes to house in the neighborhood call the oldest synagogue in Europe but this is not formally established .
The oldest Sephardic synagogue still in use, built in the XIV ^century, is located in Croatia , in Dubrovnik .

The Sephardic synagogues in the world

The expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 falls on roads and waterways European tens of thousands of Jews known as Sephardim , who swarm in the Mediterranean and Asia Minor. Those who remained in Spain at the cost of conversion to Christianity were expelled or emigrated within two centuries that followed, England, South of France, particularly Bordeaux and Bayonne, in Flanders and the Netherlands Netherlands, and thence to Brazil for some time and then Dutch New Amsterdam, later New York.

Synagogues in the Ottoman Empire

The synagogue Yohanan ben Zakkai , one of four Sephardic synagogues of Jerusalem

That the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Sultan Bayezid II who proved more willing to accommodate the Jews expelled from Spain.

Jews first select cities such Salonica , Istanbul and Izmir. When in 1516, became Ottoman Palestine, there occurs a migration to Safed in Galilee. Establishing themselves rabbis known as Isaac Luria , Isaac Aboagye or Joseph Caro , author of the Shulchan Arukh , which inaugurate or in whose honor they built synagogues, like Caro Synagogue, the synagogue Aboagye, known for hosting the oldest Sefer Torah in use today, or Ashkenazi synagogue Ha'Ari ^{Synagogues in Italy}

Aron hakodesh the Italian synagogue in Padua (1617)

Naples was the first homeland of Don Isaac Abravanel , who was financial adviser and the kings of Spain. The ^{sixteenth-century} Italy was not unified: the Spaniards dominated Sicily, Naples and Sardinia, they expelled the Jews in 1492. In the rest of Italy, the Spanish influence is felt by the restriction of the right of residence of the Jews and the creation of ghettos , the first was the ghetto of Venice , established in 1516. Abravanel family established there in 1538 Levantina Scuola Scuola Spagnola and .
In the ghetto of Rome, the lack of space combined with the diverse schools of interpretation gave rise to the Piazza delle Cinque Scuole, a building that housed five synagogues or rather five different rhetorical traditions: indeed, Italy is home to Jews of different backgrounds, Sephardim , the Ashkenazim Jews but also of ritual "Italian" who are descendants of Jews from Judea emigres in Rome during the establishment of the Roman protectorate over Judea in the first century BCE. Thus, at Padua existed until the Second World War Ashkenazi synagogue destroyed in 1943 rebuilt but no longer used as such, a Sephardic synagogue and a missing Italian synagogue still active.

Synagogues in the Maghreb

The Maghreb , and particularly Morocco , was an easy destination for Jews from Spain, especially as many of them had parents, installed during a persecution or expulsion before. The Jews of Spain were established in several cities therefore of Morocco, Tetuan as in Fez. Y was built in the ^seventeenth century Aben Danan Synagogue , restored in 1999.

Synagogues Dutch

The United Provinces with their hard-won independence from Spain in the early seventeenth ^century, they were both hostile to Spain than Catholicism. They appeared so much land as refuges for many of the "Portuguese" who participated in the development of Amsterdam and were quickly recognized almost full-right citizens. The community prospered through trade and felt assured enough to be built by Elias Bouman a synagogue that holds 2,000 worshipers in full view along a canal. Portuguese Synagogue or in Esnoga Ladino was inaugurated in the presence of local authorities in 1675. It became the model for many others, including the decoration of Dutch chandeliers.
The Jews of Holland, including Manasseh ben Israel , who campaigned for the return of Jews to England, the Dutch style them up in the synagogues. Bevis Marks Synagogue in London , also known under the name of "Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue" was opened in 1701 and is now the oldest synagogue in the English department. Built by the Quaker Joseph Notices , it also reflects the Puritan churches of the time.

The Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam by Emanuel de Witte

Bevis Marks Synagogue in London

Early American synagogues

Because America is almost entirely occupied by Spain, Portugal, France and England, all powers that prevented access to their territory to the Jews in the late ^seventeenth century, Jews settled in the small Dutch possessions.

The Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue (the Rock of Israel), in Recife , Brazil , was the first synagogue built in the Americas in 1630 when Recife was a Dutch possession. We recently discovered its foundations. It was built by Portuguese Jews went through Holland. In 1654, the Portuguese took control of Recife and expelled the Jews who return to North America and New Amsterdam , later called New York . A new synagogue was built in the same place in the 1990s.

The oldest continuously operating synagogue U.S. finds itself in the small Dutch island of Curacao in the Caribbean. It seems that the first synagogue, Mikve Israel-Emanuel, there existed even before 1654. The current building in Willemstad , Curacao's capital, date from 1732 and was inspired by Esnoga .

In the British dominions, the situation of Jews varied by colony. It was at Newport in the Isle of Rhode Island , that the Jews settled in 1658 and now called the synagogue Touro Synagogue , named after its founder and first hazzan , a Portuguese Jew, was built in the style of neo- Palladian , fashionable in the American colonies at that time. Inaugurated in 1763, is the only synagogue still in use in the United States dating from the colonial period.

Synagogues in Southern France

The synagogue in Carpentras, France's oldest synagogue in use today

The Jews were expelled from France in 1394, and those who reside in the ^seventeenth and ^eighteenth centuries, most having fled from Spain or Portugal , have become at least nominally Christian. They settled in the Basque Country in Bayonne or in small towns like La Bastide-Clairence (where you can still see the Jewish cemetery ), Peyrehorade or Bidache , but also in Bordeaux . So as not to offend the authorities, Jewish services are held in discrete oratories.

Paradoxically in the Papal States , the Venaissin County , that the Jews were officially allowed in careers ( ghettos in Provence ) to Avignon , from Carpentras and Cavaillon. Relative prosperity allows them to raise the ^eighteenth century synagogues small but nevertheless quite worked , Italianate style, as we noted in ironwork. Four buildings were well constructed: Carpentras, Cavaillon and Isle sur Sorgue and Avignon. Only the first two remain today, as Isle was destroyed, and that of Avignon was rebuilt on a different model after a fire in the early nineteenth ^century. For the prayer hall of the four synagogues built in the eighteenth ^century, we must speak the same model where the turntable for the Office (Tebah) is located in an elevated, accessible by stairs from the prayer room. In front and below is the qodesh Haron Ha, the Holy Ark, which are stored in the Torah scrolls. This special provision for the liturgy addresses a problem space. Jewish communities, large number of followers, had limited area to build their synagogues and prayer room was not alone the whole of the synagogue. In the eighteenth ^century, for Jews Comtadins, the space problem is not new, previous synagogues were already built on the same principle. Some synagogues like Italian Livorno (XVII ^century) follow this model Comtadin.
The synagogue in Carpentras is now the oldest synagogue in France in activity. Cavaillon that caters more to worship.

The world's Ashkenazi synagogues

The killings linked to the Crusades, the expulsions of temporary and permanent England, France and some German territories led to a migration of Jews to Western Slavic Central Europe and especially Poland . The Dukes as Boleslaw III in the ^twelfth century and then as kings of Poland Casimir III the Great in the fourteenth ^century generally favored the reception of Jews until the sixteenth ^century. They both settled in the city than in rural areas where they became the majority in some villages called shtetl. This contributed to the emergence of two types of synagogues, synagogues stone city and those of wood in the country.

Synagogues in Poland and Eastern Europe

It is not possible to summarize in few lines the history of many thousands of synagogues built in the Middle Ages to the Holocaust whose testimonies have all but disappeared in fires caused by the Nazis in the destruction of the Second World War and abandonment due to the disappearance of Jews from these regions. The project on synagogues in Poland lists 1400 synagogues .

• The wooden synagogue architecture resume the shtetl where the houses themselves are wooden. The oldest dated from the ^seventeenth century and were characterized by an interior that could be plentiful. The Gabin synagogue in Poland (1710), was remarkable for its bas-reliefs, one of Khodoriv in Ukraine (in Polish Chodorov) near Lvov (dating from the same period) was adorned with a cap on the floral and animal lush painted by Israel Lisnicki whose recovery is seen in the Museum of the Diaspora in Tel Aviv. The museum of art and history of Judaism in Paris has some remarkable models of wooden synagogues, including that of Wolpe in Belarus , dating from 1643.

Interior Stara Synagogue in Kazimierz with the bimah between the pillars and the holy ark in the background

• The synagogues of stone are slightly more likely to have crossed the wars and the Holocaust. Their plan takes churches that often times the same with one, two or three aisles. One of the oldest synagogue is the Stara of Kazimierz , former Jewish district of Krakow. Built in the fifteenth ^century it was renovated in the sixteenth ^century by Mateo Gucci, Italian architect established in Poland. Style Renaissance it consists of two aisles and the bimah is located in the middle of the room between the two central pillars. Plundered and devastated during the Second World War, renovated during the 1950s and is now a museum. The Remuh synagogue dating from 1558 is the only one still in service in Krakow. It has a single nave and the bimah is again central.

Among the synagogues of stone, one can also cite the original fortified synagogue. The Lesko synagogue in Galicia and of Pinsk date from the ^seventeenth century. The most remarkable is that Lutzka which he is said to have been fortified by permission of the Polish King Sigismund III and whose roof was provided with guns . This is probably due to increased insecurity for Jews in Poland in the early seventeenth ^century, culminating in the massacres caused by the invasion of Cossacks led by Hetman Bogdan Khmelnitsky.

Ashkenazi Synagogues in Italy

Inside the synagogue of Casale Monferrato ( Piedmont )

It was in Italy that the interior of Ashkenazi synagogues reach a new level. Again, the style of the region can be found in synagogues who borrow heavily to the Baroque. The synagogue of Casale Monferrato was built in 1595, the Scuola Granda tedesca of Venice (close to the Scuola Grande Spagnola in the ghetto) date of 1628. The Bimota (plural Hebrew bimah) will take on the appearance of canopies.

Synagogues Ashkenazi Holland

Again, this is Holland, which will be the best refuge for Jews expelled or fleeing the massacres. Those leaving Poland and the atrocities of Bogdan Khmelnitsky will be quickly outnumbered the Sephardim. Amsterdam becomes a time for the Jewish capital of the West. Even before the Portuguese Synagogue, the Ashkenazi Synagogue or Great Synagogue (Grote Synagoge) was built in 1670-1671 by architect Daniel Stalpaert, a developer of the royal palace. It adjoins the Portuguese Synagogue in the ^seventeenth and ^eighteenth centuries and three other Ashkenazi synagogues were built in the same neighborhood . All these synagogues are now the Jewish Museum of Amsterdam, the Dutch Jewish community was exterminated during the Holocaust.

Synagogues in the German states

The situation of Jews in Germany varies from state to state but generally, the Jewish communities to develop like Berlin or Frankfurt. The first synagogue in Berlin located Heidereutergasse (destroyed in 1945) was inaugurated on ¹ January 1714 in the presence of Queen Sophia Dorothea. King Frederick William ^I 's visit in 1718 . There remains little evidence of German synagogues of the ^seventeenth and ^eighteenth centuries, the Nazis had begun their systematic destruction, exacerbated by the war. However, there remains the synagogue The ( Lower Saxony ), which dates from 1740 and that of Michelstadt ( Hesse ) from the year 1791, and the hall (dating from 1735) of the synagogue on the rural Horb Main , decorated the way Khodoriv the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.

The Jewish quarter of Josefov in Prague , under the rule of the Habsburgs since the sixteenth ^century houses from all eras synagogues as the Old-New Synagogue already mentioned but also the synagogue Pinkas (XVI ^century) and Klaus (XVII ^century). These are still small buildings, now part of the Jewish Museum in Prague.

Synagogues Ashkenazi Ottoman Palestine

The synagogue Hurva reconstruction (September 2009)

The oldest Ashkenazi synagogue in Jerusalem when the Ottoman Empire is the synagogue Hourba . The beginning of its construction dates back to 1700 but it was still unfinished in 1721 burned by Arab creditors furious late payment of its sponsors. Rebuilt in the ^nineteenth century , it serves as a defensive position in the Haganah during the siege of Jerusalem in 1948. After its capture by the Arab Legion , which marks the victory of the Arabs in the Old City of Jerusalem, it was dynamited. Reconstruction began in 2005 and the synagogue can be rinaugure March 14, 2010, which is the pretext of the wrath of Hamas .

Abraham Avinu synagogue ("our father Abraham" in French) was built in 1540 by Rabbi Malkiel Ashkenazi near Jerusalem, Hebron , where is buried Abraham from the Jewish and Muslim traditions. She was the center of the Jewish quarter of Hebron until its destruction after anti-Jewish riots of 1929. It was rebuilt in the same place in 1976.

Ashkenazi synagogues in France

Synagogue Pfaffenhoffen

Synagogue Luneville

The Jews of France have been expelled from the kingdom in 1394. When France annexed the Provence in the late fifteenth ^century,Louis XII in expelling the Jews from 1501 . But a century and a half later, when France annexed the Alsace and formally Three bishoprics in 1648 , nor the Jews of Metz nor those of Alsace are expelled and Louis XIV visited the synagogue of Metz in 1657 .
France, unlike the Netherlands or England, does not at this time freedom of conscience and the Jews in Alsace retain their personal status. Until the French Revolution , they have no right to reside in Strasbourg and worship quietly in small synagogues that become relatively numerous in the eighteenth ^century. This option is illustrated by the existence, Traenheim ( Lower Rhine ), a synagogue hidden in an attic, dating from 1723 .
In 1766 Lorraine, with significant Jewish communities in Luneville and Nancy , became French in the death of Stanislas Leszczyski. Meanwhile, the ideas from the Enlightenment and progress in 1787 Louis XVI published an edict of toleration , the Edict of Versailles for Protestants. Similarly, Jews are beginning to be better considered by the government and this means permission to build new synagogues in Lorraine Phalsbourg in 1772, at Luneville in 1786 and then to Nancy in 1788 and in Alsace Mutzig in 1787 and then to Pfaffenhoffen in 1791. These synagogues are still very discreet. At Luneville , then it is hidden behind a house and has no distinguishing mark. At Pfaffenhoffen , only the date of manufacture written in Hebrew on the lintel of the door can evoke a synagogue.

From the revolutionary period of the Holocaust

The philosophy of the Enlightenment change the look of the Gentiles on the Jews. The notions of freedom of conscience and equal rights are at least partly put into practice in the United States and France. The Revolutionary Armed and Empire will spread these ideas in much of Europe, particularly in breaking down the walls of ghettos as in Italy.
Among Jews, the Enlightenment gave rise to the Haskalah , which will change the way that the Jews or at least those who do not adhere to strict orthodoxy have on themselves. This double change in the perception of Jews in society will not fail to influence the architecture of synagogues.
If the Jews are now equal in rights with other citizens, they can build temples as large as the Christian churches. The largest in Europe was built in Budapest from 1854 to 1859. And if freedom of conscience becomes the rule, there is no reason to conceal the synagogues, on the contrary we can see clearly their rationale by prominent Jewish symbols such as tables of the law, citations of the Bible in Hebrew or vernacular, the Star of David or Menorah.
The Haskalah and Reform Judaism were born in Germany are changing the conception that the Jews have their synagogues. They become even temples, word always used in documentation of synagogues. This affects the architecture of synagogues that may resemble churches both externally and internally. They are of Romanesque style as the Victory (1874) in Paris, a Gothic like to Savannah (Georgia) (1878), as in Byzantine style Neuilly sur Seine (1878) (before the extension of the synagogue in the 1930s), as in Moorish style Turin or even evoke a Greek or Roman temple as the synagogue the Temple (1875) in Atlanta. This change also affects Poland, where the Great Synagogue in Warsaw , classical style was inaugurated in 1878 or Noyk Synagogue , also in Warsaw and in use today, style Romanesque Revival with elements of many Byzantine , neo-Renaissance and Moorish.
If the Gothic is unusual because probably all too typical of the style of churches, it is curious that the oriental styles, whether Moorish style or Byzantine style are the most represented. Several explanations are possible: the simplest is that Jews are seen as Orientals by architects often non-Jewish synagogues. But it is likely that the Hispano-Moorish style is attached to a Spain where Jews, Christians and Muslims have lived in harmony. As for the Byzantine style, it is already used in many churches and mosques, it must be able to agree to the synagogues. Dominique Jarasse (see bibliography ) also speaks of a Rabbi Ezekiel Landau responsum of the eighteenth ^century recommending this style.
The interior of the synagogue also changed considerably in the nineteenth ^century. The Bimah is usually located at the end of the nave for the officiant to cope with the faithful, instead of being at the center as in Orthodox synagogues. It can often be an organ and even a choir, two provisions do not conform to the halakha.
Finally, the geographical location of synagogues will gradually change. They will leave the old Jewish ghetto to track their migration to social and more bourgeois neighborhoods as they will spread in countries friendly to the Jews in Germany, Western Europe and the United States.

Rivka Synagogue and Zalman Noyk, Warsaw

Facade of the synagogue on Dohany Street, Budapest

Inside the synagogue de la Victoire in Paris in the early twentieth century

Mickve Israel Synagogue in Savannah Gothic

img alt = "" src = "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Synagogue_de_Turin_ 28Torino%%% 29.JPG/80px-Synagogue_de_Turin_ 28Torino% 29.JPG" width = "80 "height =" 120 "/> Synagogue of Turin , Hispano-Moorish style

France

Synagogue Bayonne , always hidden behind a building and Marseille that year by Nathan Solomon inspired by the Nazareth synagogue. Most major cities are building their synagogue and even resorts like Biarritz and Arcachon.

The old Sephardic communities of southern France

It is from 1793 and despite the hostility of the revolutionary power to religion that the Jews of the Comtat-Venaissin take advantage of their newfound status of full citizens, including migrating to Nimes and to build a synagogue still very small (the facade Current date 1893).
We must wait nearly 20 years to see rising a new synagogue in France at Bordeaux. It was built in 1812 in the Jewish Quarter to the Portuguese who could not say openly Jews under the Old Regime. This synagogue burned down in 1873 and was replaced by a larger synagogue, in a prestigious district in 1882.
The difference is noticeable in 1837 when the synagogue was built in Bayonne still in the Jewish Quarter but in a neo-classical much more noble than the one adopted in 1812 in Bordeaux.

Paris and its region

Meanwhile, in 1819 is what built the first synagogue in Paris (the Jews were banished from Paris until the Revolution) rue Notre-Dame de Nazareth . This includes causing a prayer room Ashkenazi and one Sephardi.

It is from the Second Empire that the Jewish community began to flourish in Paris and that they multiply the synagogues. Some will be monumental as Victory but they are rarely seen: the Empress Eugenie opposes giving a frontage on a street or a place important to the synagogues of Victory and Tournelles.

Two of the most interesting synagogues an architectural point of view are built in the early twentieth ^century: it is the synagogue in the Rue Pavee style Art Nouveau is the architect Hector Guimard and the synagogue in the street Chasseloup-Laubat to wood framing, whose architect is Lucien Bechmann.

The first synagogue was inaugurated commuter in 1878 in Neuilly-sur-Seine. It will be followed by that of Versailles opened September 22, 1886, on the pediment of which is ostensibly deployed a sefer torah stone. Also noteworthy synagogue Boulogne sur Seine built on the land of a property of the Rothschild family by Emmanuel Pontremoli.

Synagogue de Versailles St-Albert Joly, whose pediment is surmounted by scrolls of the Torah

Facade of the synagogue in the Rue Pavee , gray, wavy, vertical lines in all

Entrance to the synagogue in the Rue Pavee , topped by a Star of David that is not original.

Paved Street Synagogue in Paris by Guimard - retail, signature: "Hector Guimard Architect 1913"

Alsace-Lorraine

More than half the Jewish population of France lives in Alsace (20 to 25 000 people according to the census of 1784) and Lorraine in the late eighteenth ^century. This population is mainly rural Alsace since the towns were closed to Jews until the Revolution. This is unique in Western Europe. In some villages, the Jews form a large group that Catholics or Protestants, and they will want to have a synagogue comparable churches.
The other trigger for the construction of synagogues is a law enacted under Louis-Philippe in 1831 decided that ministers of religion will be paid by the Jewish state as Catholic priests and Protestant pastors . Jewish communities no longer have to maintain their rabbis and can therefore invest in the synagogues.
For example, since 1836 is built Struth , village of Bas-Rhin , whose Jewish population will never exceed 168 people , a small synagogue. Foussemagne today in the Territory of Belfort , where the synagogue dates from the 1850s , showed the same characteristic of being the only village in France with a synagogue but no church .

Towns and cities are building larger buildings, often pink sandstone as in Selestat with bulbs as very Germanic in Saverne or Wolfisheim , built in 1890, and this effort will continue under German domination from 1871 to 1918. The best example is the Romanesque synagogue Strasbourg Kleber wharf built in 1898 and burned in November 1940 by the German occupiers.
These are 176 and synagogues that were built in Alsace and Lorraine from 1791 to 1914. Only half of them remain today.

Synagogue Struth

Synagogue Saverne

Synagogue Slestat built in 1890

Synagogue in Strasbourg , Quai Kleber , inaugurated in 1898, burned by the Nazis in 1940

Italy

Italy has a small Jewish community. And yet, nowhere else can we understand better What meant the emancipation of the Jews. If the Italian synagogues prior to the eighteenth ^century are among the most remarkable for their interior decoration, they are also among the most discrete externally. Whether in Venice to Ferrara or Urbino , the passer can walk along a synagogue without suspecting the existence of at least careful consideration.
Equal rights for Jews was proclaimed the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1848 and in Rome in 1870. Will therefore rise in Italy some of the most notable synagogues in Europe. The synagogue of Rome visited in 1986 by Pope John Paul II , the beginning of the ^twentieth century and its original height as his dome with a square base of the track are far from the Roman rooftops.
The Synagogue of Florence, completed in 1882 dominates the Florentine roofs. The most noble materials as marble, travertine and copper were used for the construction of this building the Byzantine style.
In Turin , which was the capital of the kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia , the Jewish community decided in 1862 to erect a synagogue. The chosen architect, Alessandro Antonelli , wanted to build the tallest building in the world of masonry, while the original plan indicated that a height of 47 meters. He finished what is now called the Mole Antonelliana , emblematic building of Turin, 167 meters high and is now represented on the coin of 2 cents Italian. Meanwhile, the Jewish community, for financial reasons or by a belated modesty, had withdrawn from the project. She merely another synagogue built in 1884 by Enrico Petiti whose bulbs dominate the neighborhood.

Great Synagogue of Rome

Mole Antonelliana a synagogue to be built

Great Synagogue of Florence

Germany and the Austro-Hungarian

It is often nothing of hundreds of German synagogues built in the nineteenth ^century. However, we can visit virtual synagogues by referring to the site of the University of Darmstadt .
Germany is the country of the Haskalah and in this country that the architecture of synagogues was first marked. This is probably which had been built some of the finest synagogues.
Today, one can still see part of the New Synagogue in Berlin where we recognize the Germanic bulbs already mentioned in Alsace. It was inaugurated in 1866 in the presence of Bismarck and could hold 3000 people. Having suffered damage during Kristallnacht and bombing during the Second World War , it was largely destroyed by the authorities in East Germany in 1958. He left the street frontage Oranienburg and dome covered with gold leaf. Today it is a Jewish community center.
The largest synagogue in Germany , located Rykestrasse in Berlin, for its part has reopened in September 2007 . Romanesque style, it was inaugurated in 1904 and had escaped the fire during Kristallnacht because it was too enmeshed in the surrounding urban fabric.

The synagogue in Essen dating from 1913 it was rebuilt from its ruins and is now a conference center.

The Austria-Hungary has experienced a tremendous growth of its Jewish community during the reign of Emperor Francis Joseph. Many celebrities, like Sigmund Freud , Stefan Zweig and Franz Kafka are derived, without omitting Theodor Herzl, whose coffin, before its transfer to Israel in 1949, was exhibited in the main synagogue of Vienna . This, the only witness to the Jewish community in Vienna, was built in 1826 on condition of not being seen from the street.

New Synagogue in Berlin

Old Synagogue Essen

Inside the Stadttempel Vienna

Leopoldstadt Tempel Vienna in 1860

Interior Trkischer Tempel (watercolor 1890)

The synagogues of the empire reflected this growth. At Trieste , then Austria-Hungary, architects Ruggero and Arduino Berlam realize one of the largest synagogues in Europe in a style reminiscent of the Syrian churches dating from the Roman Empire . But it is in Prague and Budapest synagogues that were built the most beautiful.

Prague

If only a few monuments recalling the Jewish quarters of Warsaw , Krakow , Lodz and Vilnius (which some had called the Jerusalem of the Baltic ), Prague has the largest collection of Jewish monuments remaining in Europe. They are mostly in the central district of Josefov. With the Jewish cemetery and Jewish Town Hall with the clock hands turn upside down, you can still see the largest concentration of synagogues in Europe. Besides the synagogues , Old-New , Pinkas and Klaus , Prague also has the Spanish Synagogue and the Maisel Synagogue.

The Spanish Synagogue was never attended by Jews from Spain. It owes its name to the architecture and interior design inspired by the Hispano-Moorish synagogues in Toledo , chosen by the architects Ullmann, Baum and Munzberg in the 1890s. As for the Maisel Synagogue , it was built in Gothic style in the late ^nineteenth century from the remnants of the synagogue founded by the mayor and benefactor of the Jewish quarter during the Renaissance, Mordechai Maisel . These last two synagogues are now part of the Jewish Museum in Prague and are no longer used for religious services.

In the district of Nov Msto , street Jeruzalmsk, is the largest synagogue in Prague, the extravagant Jubilee Synagogue in polychrome interiors and exteriors. It was built in 1906 by architect Wilhelm Stiassny and Frantiek Frhlich and his style is a blend of Art Nouveau and Moorish style. This liberal synagogue where you can still attend services should name the jubilee of Emperor Franz Joseph , testimony of the will of assimilation of the Jewish girl uses the early twentieth ^century.

Spanish Synagogue

Jubilee Synagogue

Budapest

Budapest has long housed a large Jewish community and is one of the few Central European cities where this community still has a few tens of thousands of people. The Great Synagogue in Budapest , Dohany Street, is the most richly decorated and most of Europe. It can accommodate 3,000 worshipers. It was built from 1854 to 1859 in the Moorish style in vogue in the synagogues of that era. It has its place in Jewish history for two reasons: Theodor Herzl was born in a house adjoining the synagogue in 1860, as evidenced by a plaque on the wall of the synagogue in 1944, the synagogue was transformed by the Nazis in an internment camp where Adolf Eichmann was in the women's gallery, an office administrator of the final solution ^, . The neighborhood served so ghetto.
In this same neighborhood, street and street Kazinczy Rumbach, there are other synagogues where restoration is underway. This street Rumbach designed by Otto Wagner offers an interesting metal structure. As for local synagogue buda remarkable building in classical style in 1821, long a television studio , it was rinaugure September 5, 2010 in the presence of Zsolt Semjn, Deputy Prime Minister of Hungary and Yona Metzger, large Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel .

Inside the Great Synagogue in Budapest

Synagogue buda

Synagogues in North Africa

Jews have always lived in different parts of North Africa long before the Arabs do not conquer, as evidenced by the writings of Augustine or the history of Kahena. They obviously have prayed in the synagogues. However, their status as dhimmis forbade them to construct buildings of any importance. The situation changes when the European powers began to dominate the Maghreb in the nineteenth ^century. The work of the Alliance Israelite Universelle on one hand and secondly the Cremieux decree in Algeria Jews allow them to develop a new social status.

By tradition the oldest synagogue in the world dating back from exile after the destruction of the First Temple is the Ghriba on the island of Djerba , which is still in service . In any event, the Ghriba is attested since at least the ^sixteenth century but the present building dates only from the ^nineteenth century. Other synagogues exist in Tunisia , that of Zarzis , built in the early ^twentieth century, was destroyed by a suspicious fire in 1983 but has since been rebuilt exactly, that of Tunis has in turn been opened just before the Second World War.

In Algeria , the Jews became French citizens in 1870 Cremieux Decree. The Consistory Algerian created by the French government had already taken over the administration of Algerian Jewry while clashing with the owners of small synagogues and shrines existed since long before the French conquest. Twenty synagogues are constructed from 1845 to 1905 . If the market Randon synagogue in Algiers was built in 1865 inspired the style of the mosques, that of Oran opened in 1918 after 38 years of work or that of Constantine or Mostaganem (1857), are in the tradition of monumental synagogues consistorial of metropolis.

If the synagogues in Tunisia are still open for worship today, those of Algeria are some turned into mosques. Mostaganem was that of a carpenter in 2004 .

In Egypt , the Cairo and Alexandria , synagogues are also numerous. Mention may be made at the Cairo synagogue still open, the Gates of Heaven (Shaar Hachamam or Hebrew). Inaugurated in 1899, his style is, according to Sir Ronald Storrs, "pharaonic" .

Within the jewish synagogue in Djerba, Tunisia

Inside the synagogue of Zarzis , Tunisia

Great Synagogue of Oran

Synagogue in Algiers market Randon

Synagogues in Palestine and Ottoman agent

The Palestine is administered by the Ottoman Empire until 1917 when it came under British control in 1920 who are mandated to administer from the League of Nations. The Jews have long been seen synagogues in Jerusalem , Safed , Hebron and Tiberias. In 1872, Hassidim helped by the Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria inaugurate the new Synagogue Tiferet Israel which will rise above the rooftops of the old city until the war of Israeli independence in 1948, where it will be destroyed. Jews began to emigrate from Europe to Palestine in the 1880s even before the formalization of the Zionist movement by Theodore Herzl. In general, they were hardly religious and building synagogues was not their first concern. So in villages administered and funded by Edmond de Rothschild , whose ideas were very different from other "Zionists" as Leon Pinsker , which amounted in 1885 in Rishon Lezion and 1886 in Zichron Yaakov synagogue of the first new yishuv.

Modern urban synagogues appear only the first new towns and Jewish neighborhoods. At Gedera the first synagogue, Orthodox, was built in 1912 , the Great Synagogue of Tel Aviv , the Byzantine style in 1926 and Yechouroun synagogue in Jerusalem in 1936 under the leadership of Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook.

Tiferet Israel Synagogue in Jerusalem (picture taken circa 1940)

Synagogue Zichron Yaakov , Israel

Synagogue of Rishon Lezion

Synagogues in the United States

Sixth & I Historic Synagogue neo-Byzantine (Washington)

Judaism meets a situation exceptionally favorable. Freedom of conscience is proclaimed and effectively. The Church or rather the churches are separated from the state. Christianity is dominant but divided into many denominations that Judaism is a religious group to which the ^twentieth century will be comparable in number of followers, many others.
However, the development of transport on the one hand but also the developments in Eastern Europe and particularly in the Russian empire where pogroms are common, will foster a strong Jewish emigration from Europe to the United States. The synagogues are therefore to become more numerous, and as far as the Jews will be dispersed throughout the country.

United States, land is cheap and the Jews are no longer afraid of offending the sensibilities of their neighbors by building too big. Additionally, Reform Judaism there is a great success. All this will help build large synagogues often similar to churches. The Gothic style in Europe too associated with that church there will be at Anshe Chesed as used in New York (circa 1849) or Savannah (Georgia) (1878). We see churches synagogues become like ^the 6th Street East in New York when the Jews emigrating to other areas and vice versa redeem the Jewish community of churches as in the case of Bialystok synagogue which occupies a former Methodist church built in 1826. Many synagogues also be built in neo-classical synagogue like Charleston , which dates from 1840 or the Temple in Atlanta in imitation of the capital Washington or, as in Europe, in Byzantine style, like the synagogue of Wilshire Boulevard Los Angeles.

While Orthodox synagogues are mostly small, some synagogues are monumental, as the Central Synagogue in New York (1872) that mimics the Great Synagogue in Budapest and especially the Temple Emanu-El / Sup> reformed, by Robert D. Kohn dating from 1929. It was until recently the world's largest synagogue.

In Washington , the Sixth & I Historic Synagogue community Adas Israel is high from 1906 to 1908 in neo-Byzantine style. It will have an eventful life, becoming a church in the 1950s to regain a synagogue in the early ^twenty-first century and a visit from President Bush.

Kahal Kadosh Reform Synagogue Beth Elohim of Charleston

Bialystok synagogue (Lower East Side - Manhattan )

Gothic Revival synagogue in Savannah

Neo-classical synagogue in Atlanta

Synagogues in the Holocaust

Nazism was intended not only to eliminate the Jews but also their culture. Since 1933 was organized the first book burning in Germany. The pogrom of the night of 9 to 10 November 1938 called by the Nazi Kristallnacht is the logical next step. Heydrich , head SS , cites the results of 267 synagogues destroyed in a letter to Gring dated November 11, 1938. Among these synagogues destroyed, be mentioned that of Konstanz , Heilbronn , those of Frankfurt and of Worms , the oldest synagogue in Europe in operation until then. More than a thousand others are looted.

During the war, thousands of synagogues are disappearing in the flames kindled by the Nazis or the bombing of Germany, Poland, USSR and many other countries. Shortly after the invasion of Poland, the Great Synagogue of Danzig is also, like the synagogue Gabin : September 21, 1939, the day of Yom Kippur , beginning shortly after the invasion of Poland by Nazi troops, the German accompanied by local fascists, set fire to the synagogue and yeshiva. A treasure artistic, religious and cultural survived over 230 years burn in minutes. The entire Jewish population of Gabin is then gathered in the square of the "New Market" and when the houses near the synagogue in turn ignite the Germans forced the Jews to enter to save the property therein, while Nazi troops hilarious take photos. Several people died in the flames. On 16 May 1943 , the Great Synagogue of Warsaw was dynamited by the SS-Gruppenfhrer Jrgen Stroop as a final act of destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto , and will not be rebuilt after the Second World War.

Cities or entire neighborhoods disappeared as Jews to Salonika and Odessa. The company Nazi destruction is often completed after the war by the abandonment of the few synagogues still exist, they have more followers.

Whoever wants to know the Polish synagogues may refer to in an inventory of missing or abandoned.

In France, destroyed or badly damaged synagogues are located mainly in Alsace and Lorraine, which burned down the synagogue in Strasbourg in September 1940 and those of Bischwiller , Epinal , Guebwiller , Saint-Die , Sarreguemines , Saverne , Thionville and Wissembourg but also of Fontainebleau . Others were looted as to Ingwiller or Mulhouse. On the night of 2 to 3 October 1941, seven synagogues in Paris, including those of Tournelles are targeted by attacks conducted by Helmut Knochen ^{, ,} . The Association of French rabbis adopted a statement of protest, October 15, 1941: "Like human victims, stones sanctified by the piety, the tabernacles containing the sacred scrolls, move us and we agonize: where to stop this madness sacrilege, and all the synagogues in France, after those in Germany, will they become like the ruins of Galilee where Jesus had prayed? " .

But many other synagogues are lost as a result of the disappearance of rural communities and some, like the faithful have disappeared during the Holocaust, are subsequently transformed into museums or cultural centers, as has often been the case in Germany.

Synagogues in Prague have been saved in part by the desire of the Nazis themselves who in 1942 founded the Central Jewish Museum in order to collect all objects of art and literature from all Jewish communities and synagogues in the Czech lands .

The United Kingdom is not under the German invasion but its synagogues are paying a heavy price for German bombing. The synagogue in New Cross Road was destroyed by bombing 27 December 1940 and the Central Synagogue in London May 11, 1941 .

The modern era

The contemporary era is still marked by some major events that inevitably affect the distribution or the style of the synagogues. Immediately after the war, where there are still Jews, reconstruction is necessary. If they have mostly disappeared, as in Central and Eastern Europe, it took time for organized memory work and achievement of museums.

In parallel, the rebirth of the State of Israel, and immigration from countries where Jews can not live without discrimination as Central and Eastern Europe, former Soviet Union or the Arab countries, resulting in the return mass of synagogues in the country where they were most likely 2000 years ago.

The exile of Jews from Arab countries to Israel but also to France or America shows or transform synagogues where sometimes there ever was, while others, two-millennia disappear.

The most recent phenomenon is the reappearance of a terrorist anti-Semite who does not fail to influence the style of the synagogues which must again provide protection and discretion.

Throughout this period, Judaism is the most stable American Judaism whose many modern synagogues testimony to the force.

Reconstruction of Synagogues

A daunting task awaits the Jews after the war. Entire communities have disappeared and the rebuilding of synagogues often not a priority even if it is possible. In France, a quarter of the Jewish community has disappeared and its distribution changes. Rural communities of Alsace and Lorraine annexed by the Reich, already declining before the war, are particularly affected and are rarely very difficult to maintain. It is in cities that Judaism continues to exist, particularly Paris and Strasbourg. German reparations would provide the funds needed for reconstruction .

If the synagogues are still reconstructed everywhere in Alsace, they do not necessarily living in small towns and some will be transferred to municipalities as in Bergheim , once the seat of the rabbinate in Alsace. One of these synagogues campaign will be abandoned later turned into a museum, the museum Judeo-Alsatian Bouxwiller, opened in 1998.

So in the big cities that Jewish life is reborn and that is why the celebration of the centenary of the Synagogue of Mulhouse in 1949 and especially the inauguration of the new synagogue in Strasbourg 23 March 1958 were steps Key reconstruction. The new synagogue in the Peace of Strasbourg, a noble building can accommodate 1,600 worshipers, is the symbol of the rebirth of Judaism. Its facade is a network of stars of David, remember the yellow star but also evocative of Israel, whose new government has taken this symbol on its flag. This feeling is reinforced by the menorah with six branches that stands on the south facade.

Synagogue de la Paix in Strasbourg

Judeo-Alsatian Museum Bouxwiller (Bas-Rhin)

In England, the rebuilding of the Central Synagogue, which symbolizes the rebirth exactly the same day, March 23, 1958 .

In Germany, in the absence of large Jewish community, especially the reconstruction is to raise museums and conference centers. But gradually, with the prosperity of Germany, a significant community revert to the immigration of Jews from eastern countries. This will lead to the restoration of synagogues like the Rykkestrasse in Berlin in 2007 . In the 2000s, new synagogues are created and Bielefeld , the Synagogue Beit Tikwa is even located in a former church in 2008.

The plight of Sephardic synagogues

From 1948 to 1975, hundreds of thousands of Sephardic Jews who for generations and some for the first exile 2,500 years ago had lived in Arab countries today must either leave them as a result of persecution (as in Iraq ) evictions (as in Egypt ), insecurity and lack of future (as in North Africa ) or civil war (as in Lebanon ). They will settle in Israel and contribute to the building of synagogues in this country. They also chose France , especially when they are French citizens, as in Algeria or in other francophone countries of North Africa. They also choose the Americas, including Quebec or Brazil.

Madrid synagogue , yet very discreet

In France, the Presbytery in the 1950s launched the operation sites Consistory under the leadership of Alain de Rothschild. The needs are huge in 1962 with the arrival of returnees from Algeria and buildings, often more functional and aesthetic, are multiplying. In Paris , Rue de la Roquette, in Villiers-le-Bel , Massy , Sarcelles , and Fontainebleau synagogues were built before 1965. Gradually, the traditional model dedicated to the worship gives way to community centers where all the cultural activities of the Jewish community can take place and especially family gatherings. In 1982 , 36 new synagogues were built.

Many Jews are known as "Jews Kippur "because they do not attend the synagogue that day of the festival the most solemn of the Jewish calendar. Jewish communities transform synagogues therefore a day of church halls, communal or show that they lend or rent the authorities or other religions. Simply to make a cabinet with a Sefer Torah and a desk and ask for the synagogue is ready!

The emigration of Sephardic Jews from North Africa also brings Jews in Spain , where for the first time since 1492 , a synagogue was officially inaugurated in Madrid December 16, 1968 (oratories had existed since 1917) even though freedom religious there had been authorized a year ago . 500 years after the expulsion of Jews from Spain , the king and queen of Spain took part in a memorial service March 31, 1992 .

Meanwhile, the synagogues of the Arab countries are abandoned and crumbling like the Maghen Abraham Synagogue in Beirut or turned into mosques (as often in Algeria) or sometimes in cultural centers. Egypt , a few synagogues still functioning, as well as Morocco and Tunisia which are kept small Jewish communities.

Synagogues in modern U.S.

United States, Jewish communities use the best architects to build impressive buildings. And Frank Lloyd Wright built in 1955 what he calls a " Sinai transparent "with the synagogue in Elkins Park, glass and aluminum.

At Livingston (New Jersey), Peter Blake built the Temple Emanuel, whose shape evokes the tabernacle described in the Bible. But Dominique Jarasse think of a Japanese temple!

Temple Emanuel Livingston (New Jersey)

Synagogue in Elkins Park

Synagogues in Israel

On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel becomes an independent for the first time since the brief attempt to Bar Kochba in 135. For the first time since then, Jews can raise synagogues in the Jewish state. Although many remain shtiblekh , this has implications on the shape and style of the synagogues, although the early Zionists are often not religious. They are rather keen to build universities and is on the campus of the University of Jerusalem is built in 1957 one of the most original synagogues of Israel synagogue in Givat Ram, Heinz Rau and David Reznik. The prayer room is under a dome of concrete based on simple white pillars.

In 1960, Marc Chagall adorn the synagogue of the Hadassah hospital in Jerusalem twelve stained glass windows representing the tribes of Israel .

Immigrants to Palestine before the Second World War were often driven by a non-religious Zionist ideology. After the war, the survivors of the Holocaust and the hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees from Arab countries do not necessarily share the Zionist ideals. But they are often more religious and they will help build new synagogues in Israel.

The Chief Rabbinate of Israel, established in Jerusalem, opened Great Synagogue in 1982. The building is meant to evoke the Temple as described in the Bible.

The synagogue Cymbalista ^, high by Switzerland Mario Botta on the campus of the University of Tel Aviv, named after the philanthropist who built it. It consists of two cylindrical towers, which symbolize the Torah scrolls, which rise gradually from a rectangular base. His resemblance to the cathedral in Evry, designed by the same architect, is noteworthy.

In 2000, the Belz synagogue , now the largest in the world, was inaugurated in Jerusalem. Its name evokes the Hasidim of the town of Belz in Ukraine. The prayer hall can accommodate up to 6,000 faithful. It incorporates many of the traditional functions of the synagogue with study rooms, rooms for kiddush and other receptions and accommodations for travelers.

Synagogue of Jerusalem University	Discrete Sephardic synagogue in Netanya installed between two stores	Great Synagogue in Jerusalem
Synagogue Cymbalista University of Tel Aviv	Study hall of the synagogue of Belz	Inside the Great Synagogue Belz

Violence and terrorism against synagogues

In 1958 , the "Temple" Atlanta is probably covered by a bomb planted by sympathizers of the Ku Klux Klan. In 1980 , it is before the synagogue on Rue Copernic in Paris, a bomb killed four passers-by. The Zarzis Synagogue was destroyed that year by a riot. In October 1981, the synagogue in Antwerp , which is referred (3 dead, 100 injured) . In 1994 , the community center in Buenos Aires is covered by an attack that killed 85 people. On 11 April 2002 , the synagogue in Djerba is affected by an attack of Al-Qaeda kills a score of visitors. On 15 November 2003 in Istanbul , two synagogues are the target of a double attack which killed twenty . In September 2005, following the Israeli disengagement from Gaza , synagogues left behind are burned by the crowd . From 26 to 28 November 2008, the community center Lubavitch is a target of Islamist terrorists who attacked several buildings in Bombay and there are several victims whose rabbi and his wife .

The war in Gaza in France causes an increase in antisemitic acts. On January 5, 2009, a car is launched against the gates of a synagogue and burned in Toulouse . On 11 January, 9 Molotov cocktails were thrown against a synagogue in Saint-Denis . This violence is also found in Venezuela , where the synagogue in Caracas was vandalized Jan. 31, 2009 .

To protect themselves, Jewish communities have had to resort to methods of fortification and secrecy that marked the synagogues of many eras. In Europe, few synagogues that post their hours of religious services and is probably not open to the public as can the churches. Security gates or terminals of concrete and surveillance cameras are common, as is the presence of police services in gathering many followers.

Registration at the entrance to the synagogue in Rishon le Zion, "How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob! Thy tabernacles, O Israel! "( Numbers 24.5 )

See also

Related articles

• Judaism
• Other Places of Worship: Mosque ~ temple ~ church
• Talmud Torah
• Torah

External Links

• (In) Synagogues around the world on the Jewish Virtual Library

Major museums dealing with synagogues

• (In) The synagogues around the world on the website of the Diaspora Museum (Tel Aviv)
• Museum of Art and History of Judaism (Paris)
• Judeo-Alsatian Museum Bouxwiller (Bas-Rhin)
• Jewish Museum of Prague
• (In) Jewish Museum of Amsterdam

Bibliography

• Jean Daltroff The road of Judaism in Alsace, ID edition collection guides Discoveries
• Dominique Jarasse, The Golden Age of the synagogues, ed. Herscher
• Dominique Jarasse, Synagogues, ed. Adam Biro
• Dominique Jarasse, A History of French synagogues, Actes Sud , coll. "Hebraica," 1997 ( ISBN 2-74271262-3 )
• Mireille Hadas-Lebel , Rome, Judea and the Jews, A. & J. Picard, Paris, 2009 (ISBN 978.2.7084.0842.5) . See Chapter XII.
• Collective work under the direction of Freddy Raphael, Alsatian Judaism, ed. The Blue Swarm
• Collective work under the direction of Geoffrey Wigod , Encyclopedic Dictionary of Judaism , Editions du Cerf, ISBN 2-204-04541-1
• Collective work under the direction of Elie Barnavi , Universal History of the Jews, Hachette, ISBN 2-01-016334-6
• The website of Judaism in Alsace and Lorraine

References

This article incorporates text from the Jewish Encyclopedia of 1901-1906, article "Synagogue" by Wilhelm Bacher and Lewis N. Dembitz, a publication now in the public domain.

1. Synagogue has many equivalents, corresponding to different languages as Jews and their religious sensibilities. The Yiddish uses the word (shoul), "school" and Ladino (Esnoga). Some congregations also use the term Beit Tefillah (House of Prayer "). The Persian Jews and Karaites use the term neighbor kenessa derived from the Aramaic. The Reform Jews and some conservative sometimes called the "Temple".
2. See especially Isaiah 8:16 ff
3. (en) Synagogue , Encyclopdia Britannica (1911). Accessed August 28, 2007
4. Philo, Spec. 2.61-62
5. Jerusalem Targum on Exodus 6:20 p.m. ET I Chron. 4:39 p.m.; Rashi and Radak on Jeremiah 39:8, the "people's house" (bet amma Aramaic) Designating the synagogue in TB Shabbat 32a.
6. De Vita Mosis III, 27
7. Against Apion II, 17
8. Read online sefarim.fr
9. Read online sefarim.fr
10. Read online sefarim.fr
11. ^{a and b} Megillah 1:3; for the meaning of section 10, see TB Brachot 6a.
12. Matt. 1:54 p.m., Mark 6:2, Luke 4:16
13. Mark 1:21, Luke 7:5, John 6:59.
14. Acts 9:20
15. Acts 13:5
16. Acts 1:14 p.m.
17. TB Sukkah 51b
18. ^{a and b} The "Encyclopedic Dictionary of Judaism" (see bibliography) defines shtibl (plural shtiblekh) as informal places of prayer of Hasidic Jews who both serve as synagogues, places of study and community centers. Shtibl is a diminutive, so this is a small room.
19. King Solomon (I Kings 8:34, 44, 48, II Chron. 6:34) and Daniel (Dan. 6:11) pray toward Jerusalem
20. TB Sukkah 51b-52a.
21. Moses Maimonides , Mishna Torah , Hilkhot Yessodei ha-Torah 6:1-2.
22. TB Shabbat 13b, 30b, 115a, Pesachim 62a-b
23. Moses Maimonides i> Healing through the mind before the Letters of Fustat, introduction, translation and notes by Laurent Cohen-Daniel Radford Bibliophane Publishing, 2003, The Collection of us, ISBN 2-86970-081-4
24. (en) A Window Into Medieval Jewish Life . Retrieved October 11, 2007
25. Prask Synagogy / Prague Synagogues, Arno Parik, Jewish Museum in Prague, 2000, ISBN 80-85608-33-2
26. Philo, Legat. 155-157; Josephus, Antiq. Jud. 14.213-216
27. Hirsch Graetz , " History of the Jews , "Francois-Dominique Fournier. Accessed November 3, 2007
28. (en) Spencer PM Harrington, " Israel's Oldest Synagogue , "Archaeological Institute of America, July / August 1998. Accessed February 2, 2009
29. (en) Donald D. Binder, " Jericho "Pohick Church (Lorton, Va.). Accessed February 2, 2009
30. See the website of Dr. Donald D Binder, very rich as to texts on the synagogue of the Second Temple period (in) Ancient Literary References to the Second Temple Synagogues , Donald D. Binder. Accessed July 30, 2007
31. ^{a , b and c} Hadas-Lebel 2009 , p. 202
32. (en) National Park Hammath Tiberias , Israeli National Parks. Accessed September 24, 2007
33. Hamat Gader: Hot springs and spas , Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel, 1999
34. ^{a and b} (in) Synagogue , Jewish Encyclopedia. Accessed August 23, 2007
35. collective work under the direction of Elie Barnavi , Universal History of the Jews, Hachette
36. J. Fourniol, " The Ancient Ostia , "Internet Group Ostia, 1998. Accessed July 29, 2007
37. (en) Jewish Diaspora in Rome
38. Jacques Tanguy, " The Jewish monument from the courthouse in Rouen , "CPI Group, 1997. Accessed July 30, 2007
39. CRIF home sublime Rouen , CRIF, June 23, 2008. Accessed June 23, 2008
40. Rouffach Synagogue , site of Judaism in Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed July 29, 2007
41. Tourism Guide Barcelona
42. (en) Synagogue of Dubrovnik , the Diaspora Museum in Tel Aviv. Accessed July 30, 2007
43. The name comes from the fact that Ashkenazi father of Isaac Luria came from Germany.
44. (en) The synagogues , Ebraico Ghetto di Venezia. Retrieved October 11, 2007
45. ^{a and b} Synonym, at this time of Marrano. Indeed, on one hand, many Jews had passed through Portugal where they had experienced a second expulsion in 1496, on the other hand they could not identify as Jews because they were often tolerated that provided themselves Christians, and finally to say about Spain was unpopular. In Paris, we still say that the synagogue street Buffault rite is Portuguese.
46. Elias Bouman: Dutch architect (1636-1686) who worked on the synagogues of Amsterdam and rich homes of individuals.
47. (en) Website of the Portuguese synagogue in Amsterdam . Accessed July 29, 2007
48. (en) Website of the Bevis Marks Synagogue . Accessed July 29, 2007
49. Joseph Review: carpenter who also worked on St Bride's Church in Fleet Street.
50. (en) Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue in Recife (Brazil) , Museum of the Diaspora. Accessed September 24, 2007
51. (en) Colleen P. Popson, " Rediscovering the first synagogue in the New World , Archaelogical Institute of America, 2002. Accessed September 18, 2007
52. (en) Website of the Israel-Emanuel Synagogue Mikve . Accessed July 29, 2007
53. See the article Great Synagogue of Bordeaux
54. Elizabeth Sauze, " The synagogues of the Comtat ", Ministry of Culture. Accessed July 29, 2007
55. The prayer hall of the synagogue of Carpentras , Ministry of Culture. Accessed July 29, 2007
56. History of the Jews in Poland
57. ^{a and b} (pl) Synagogues in Poland
58. (en) Beth Hatefutsoth
59. Model of the synagogue Wolpe Museum of Art and History of Judaism . Accessed September 4, 2009
60. (en) Old Synagogue in Krakw , Marek Strzala. Accessed May 23, 2008
61. (en) Synagogue Lutzke , Diaspora Museum in Tel Aviv. Accessed July 30, 2007
62. (en) Synagogue Lutzke , Benjamin J. Bark. Accessed July 30, 2007
63. (en) Great Synagogue , Jewish Historical Museum in Amsterdam. Accessed ^1st August 2007
64. (de) Gerhild Komanda, " Berlin Chronicle (1695-1740) , "Berliner Lindenblatt, 2006. Accessed August 21, 2007
65. (de) Synagogue in Celle , a town of Celle, accessed August 16, 2007
66. (de) Michelstadt Synagogue , City of Michelstadt. Accessed August 16, 2007
67. (de) History of the Jewish community and synagogue in Horb am Main , Alemannia Judaica. Accessed September 28, 2007
68. (en) Dovid Rossoff, " The Churva Synagogue in Jerusalem , "The Jewish magazine. Accessed May 23, 2008
69. Anger mounts in East Jerusalem on Courrier International (incorporating Haaretz ), March 16, 2010
70. Jonathan Aikhenbaum " Timeline - from 1501 to 1550 "on the History of Juifs.com. Accessed 27 ocotobre 2009
71. Synagogue consistorial Metz , site of Judaism in Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed July 31, 2007
72. Bernard Keller, " The attic Traenheim synagogue , Judaism Site of Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed July 31, 2007
73. Anthony Schrub " Phalsbourg "Judaism Site of Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed November 26, 2007
74. Mutzig Synagogue , site of Judaism in Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed August 26, 2007
75. Synagogue de la Victoire , Community Site for Victory. Accessed August 21, 2007
76. Synagogue de Neuilly , Community Site of Neuilly. Accessed August 21, 2007
77. Bayonne Community , the Central Consistory. Accessed August 26, 2007
78. Abraham Hirsch (1835-1912) becomes the architect of the city of Lyon.
79. In France and often in Europe, unlike Israel and the United States, synagogues do not have a name except that of their community or their street. In this case, for obvious reasons, we prefer to talk about the Nazareth synagogue.
80. On 13 November 1830, a bill was read to the House: "Effective January ^1, 1831, Jewish religious ministers will receive salaries of Treasury." Narrated by Augustin Perier , the project was adopted by a large majority and passed the House of Lords, chaired by Pasquier. The latter, on the report of Portalis , passed in turn by 57 votes against 37, February 1, adoption of the draft. See Maurice Gelbard, " Israelite Religion "Website Separation of Church and State in the texts. Accessed August 27, 2007
81. In 1868, there were 161 Jews, 88 Catholics, 110 Protestants and 100 Lutheran (See article Struth ).
82. Synagogue , City of Foussemagne. Accessed June 16, 2008
83. Wolfisheim Synagogue , Judaism Website of Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed August 28, 2007
84. Slstat Synagogue , Judaism Website of Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed August 28, 2007
85. John Daltroff " The synagogue consistorial Wharf Kleber , Judaism Site of Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed September 4, 2007
86. (it) Torino Synagogue , Jewish Community of Turin. Accessed August 27, 2007.
87. (en) Synagogues in Germany - A Virtual Reconstruction , University of Darmstadt. Accessed August 28, 2007
88. ^{a and b} The largest synagogue in Germany reopens in Berlin , Le Monde (September ^1, 2007). Accessed September 4, 2007
89. (de) Alte Synagoge Essen , Essen City. Accessed May 23, 2008
90. (en) The Stadttempel Synagogue, Vienna , Museum of the Diaspora. Accessed August 30, 2007
91. (en) The great synagogue , Jewish Community of Trieste
92. (en) Mordecai Marcus Meisel , Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906. Accessed May 25, 2008
93. Wilhelm Stiassny (1842-1910): Austrian architect who worked for the Rothschild family in Austria and proposed a plan for Garden City to Tel Aviv.
94. (fr) Virtual Tour of the Budapest Jewish , Jewish Virtual Library. Accessed August 31, 2007
95. (en) The Great Synagogue in Budapest , Museum of the Diaspora in Tel Aviv. Accessed August 31, 2007
96. Jewish monuments in Budapest , Tourist Office of Budapest. Retrieved October 17, 2010
97. John Vidal, Judaism and Israel in Budapest, L'Arche , No. 629, October 2010, page 54
98. Paul Sebag, History of the Jews of Tunisia: Origins to the Present, ed. L'Harmattan, 1991, p. 12
99. Lois Gottesman, " Jews in the Middle East, page 308 "on American Jewish Committee, November 1985
100. Valerie Assan, " Synagogues in colonial Algeria in the ^nineteenth century , Jewish Archives, ISBN 2-251-69416-1 . Accessed September 3, 2007 (5 )
101. Yassin Alim, " A carpenter in a synagogue , "El Watan (November 8, 2004). Accessed September 3, 2007
102. (en) Samir Raafat, " Gates of Heaven , "Cairo Times (September 2, 1999). Accessed September 11, 2007
103. (en) Tiferet Israel Synagogue , Jerusalem Municipality. Accessed May 25, 2008
104. (he) ... Weekend.co.il. Accessed May 25, 2008
105. Mrejen Emma, " Photographs and comments about the city of Tel Aviv. " Accessed May 25, 2008
106. (en) Website of the Synagogue Yechouroun . Accessed September 5, 2007
107. (en) History of Congregation Mikveh Israel in Savannah , Web site of the Congregation Mikveh Israel. Accessed September 8, 2007
108. (en) Byalistocker Synagogue , site of the synagogue Byalistocker. Accessed May 26, 2008
109. (en) Tom Fletcher, " Central Synagogue , New York Architecture. Accessed May 26, 2008
110. (en) History Temple Emanu-El , Temple Emanu-El
111. (en) Professor Manfred Koob and Marc Grellert, " Synagogue Internet Archive , University of Darmstadt. Accessed September 8, 2007
112. Viey Frederick, " The Synagogue of Fontainebleau "on Judaicultures. Accessed November 20, 2010
113. Raymond-Raoul Lambert, "Book of a witness. 1940-1943 ", presented and annotated by Richard Cohen. Fayard, 1985. ISBN 2-213-01549-X.
114. Lambert on page 131: "Seven synagogues jumped in Paris in the aftermath of Atonement. I never thought in my country, fanaticism could one day manifest itself in such a way! The future will judge and repair. Our leaders, like the sorcerer's apprentice, sowed the storm, I hope for them without realizing it ... Anything is possible now: we will soon desecrating our cemeteries. "
115. The main German actors of the deportation of Jews from France. Akadem on Akadem. Accessed July 3, 2009
116. A. Rutkowski (eds), "The struggle of the Jews in France during the occupation (1940-1944), Paris, 1975, page 67
117. (en) The establishment of the Central Jewish Museum , Jewish Museum of Prague
118. (en) South-East London Synagogue , Jewish Communities & Records - UK. Accessed May 27, 2008
119. (en) Central Synagogue , British Jewish Network. Accessed September 16, 2007
120. ^{a and b} Siney Charlotte-Lange, " Large and small miseries of the great exodus of the Jews of North Africa to France ", Le Mouvement Social, Editions de l'Atelier. Accessed September 17, 2007
121. Francis Weill, " The centenary celebrations , Judaism Website of Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed September 16, 2007
122. (en) History of Central Synagogue , British Jewish Network
123. (es) Chronology , The Jewish Community of Madrid. Accessed September 18, 2007
124. (en) Lis Ramon Acuna, " Juan Carlos, king Democrat , "Unesco Courier. Accessed September 18, 2007
125. The Synagogues (Egypt) , International Association Nebi Daniel. Accessed September 18, 2007
126. The Chagall windows - the 12 tribes , Alliance. Accessed September 16, 2007
127. Simon Thrush, " Campus Creations ", Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel, August 2001. Accessed February 21, 2008
128. (en) The synagogue and center of Jewish heritage Cymbalista . Accessed September 23, 2007
129. suspect a bomb attack in Antwerp 30 years ago arrested in Canada , La Libre Belgique, November 23, 2008. Accessed November 29, 2008
130. Double attacks against synagogues in Istanbul , Radio France International. Accessed September 23, 2007
131. (fr) Said Ghazali in Gaza and Tim Butcher, " Synagogues burn as Palestinians retake Gaza ", Daily Telegraph, 13 September 2005. Accessed March 29, 2008
132. (en) Anshel Pfeffer, " 8 Israelis Killed in Mumbai terror attacks , "Haaretz, 29 November 2008. Accessed November 29, 2008
133. The "isolated act" privileged after an attack on a synagogue , January 6, 2009. Accessed January 7, 2009
134. Violence - New Molotov cocktails against the synagogue in Saint-Denis , LCI , January 12, 2009. Accessed January 13, 2009
135. Venezuela: Caracas synagogue was covered with anti-Semitic Tag this Saturday. , Guysen International News, January 31, 2009. Accessed ¹ February 2009
136. Synagogues and communities , site of Judaism in Alsace and Lorraine. Accessed September 5, 2007

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