Roman Empire

The Roman Empire is the late Roman Empire one of the historiographical contours of the Roman Empire in Roman Historiography as seen by French historians. These terms are concepts very common, but their respective time limits are not fixed so unanimous. It means the first period of the Roman Empire, it begins in 27 BC. AD with the principate of Augustus 's reign and includes idealized Antonines.

The Roman Empire ends when starting the Lower Empire, which is judged by different authors.

Octave is the only master of the empire after his victory at Actium in -31. He refused the title of king. According to a well prepared scenario, it is even mine to abdicate in -27. The Senate then conferred the title of Augustus, blessed. While leaving the conduct of former magistrates and the Senate, he concentrated all powers in his hands. His successors emperors Julio-Claudian , the Flavian and Antonine lead the Roman Empire at its peak. In ^the second century , the area of the Roman Empire was at its maximum, and has between 50 and 80 million. Rome with a million inhabitants the largest city in the Mediterranean world.

The Roman Empire at its height around 120 AD

The Julio-Claudian

The reign of Augustus

In -31, after the victory of Actium, Octavian , adopted son and heir of Caesar, remains the sole master of Rome and its empire. With the support of the army rallied from all backgrounds, he concentrated in his hands a great power based on the combination of the old republican magistrates. 31 to 27, starts up the new regime: the principate. At the sitting of the Senate in January -27, res publica, is apparently restored by his care and returned to the Senate and the people. In fact, the Senate retains the administration of a few provinces without a legion. Octave, shortly after receiving the title of Augustus, keeps his immense powers and is entrusted with the administration of provinces borders and therefore the command of armies ^{Other Julio-Claudian}

Tiberius (14-37) is the son of a first marriage of Livia , wife of Augustus. this remarkable military has already 56 years old when he became emperor. He governs in a very conservative line of Augustus. Augustus had forced him to adopt Germanicus, who was his intended successor. He died in East 19. That's when Sejanus , praetorian prefect, maneuver to make itself indispensable to Tiberius. He eliminated his rivals in the imperial family. Finally terminated by Antonia , the mother of Germanicus, he was arrested and immediately executed. Tiberius ended his reign by reign of terror in Rome, condemning many senators. Unlike Augustus, Emperor Tiberius is an efficient

The Flavian

On the death of Nero , the empire knows a first crisis. Generals, Galba , Otho and Vitellius are in turn appointed by emperors and their troops killed in 69. It is ultimately the Chief of the Army of the East, Vespasian (70-79), an Italian who became Emperor giving rise to dynasty Flavian. His two son, Titus (79-81) and Domitian (81-96) succeeded him in turn. The latter was assassinated in 96 by a palace conspiracy.

The Antonines

The Senate had already planned a substitute in the person of Nerva (96-98) giving birth to the dynasty of the Antonines. He adopted his successor Trajan (98-117), a Roman of Hispania. Five out of six outstanding emperors choose, their successor in their lifetime because they have no son, but the choice is always close relatives. The reigns of Trajan and his successor Hadrian (117-138) correspond to the height of the Roman Empire. Trajan , while focusing on promoting agriculture and developing the administration, made the conquest of Dacia , of the Parthian Empire and annex the Saudi. The conquest of Parthia is not survived. The Emperor Hadrian is committed to conducting a more defensive. Under his reign, in several border regions, in Africa and Britain in particular, develop important fortifications, often called limes. Hadrian also is working to improve the functioning of the empire. In continuation of an effort started by other emperors, it seeks to promote the integration of provincial, including the establishment of colonies fees: while the term designated the colony more often the installation of settlers Roman it is now an honorary title granted to a city and giving Roman citizenship to all its inhabitants . Under the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-161), a new distinction between honestiores (rich) and humiliores (poor), appears in the right, the latter being more severely punished for the same fault . Marcus Aurelius (161-180) is known to be a Stoic philosopher-emperor. He spent 15 years on the front of the Danube to fight against the barbarians. The Empire comes into effect in a period much less propitious neighboring border seem more powerful, the empire faces difficulties agrarian famine, the outbreak of the Antonine plague. Marcus Aurelius chose his son, Commodus (180-192) as his successor. The assassination of the latter ending the dynasty of the Antonines.

The Severi

The assassination of Commodus , the last of the Antonines in December 192 opens a political crisis as the end of the dynasty Julio-Claudian. The Praetorian Guard assassinated the new emperor Pertinax brought to power and Didius Julianus. it is ultimately the general of the army of the Danube , the African Septimius Severus (193-211) who took power in 193. He fills the military benefits that it increases the number and strengthen the imperial power. The Praetorians who made and unmade emperors are so many recruited from the legions of the Danube faithful to Septimius Severus. The cultural mix brings the empire grows, religions from the East are becoming more popular in the Empire, particularly the cult of Mithra in the military. This aspect has sometimes been exaggerated by historians who have described as the Severi dynasty eastern considerably relativized trial today. He appoints his son Auguste two but when he died, Caracalla (211-217) is quick to kill his younger brother Geta. He is known for having published in 212, the famous edict that bears his name. He was assassinated on the order of the Parthian front praetorian prefect Macrinus (217-218) who succeeded in taking its place only a short time. The cousin of Caracalla, Elagabalus (218-222) became Emperor but then held to worship the god of the same name he leaves the government to his grandmother, Julia Maesa. He was killed by the Praetorian Guard and his cousin Alexander Severus (222 -235) succeeded him. After his assassination, the empire fell into a period of more troubled, traditionally described as' military anarchy , however improper term because if the imperial power was sometimes divided, it was never absent.

The imperial power

The emperors have the title of imperator, supreme commander of armies. Throughout the duration of the Roman Empire, the victory is a powerful factor in strengthening the power. The emperor conquered the challenge is easily seen to by another ambitious general. All the emperors into the habit of getting elected consul to show the continuity between the republican institutions and the principate. It also gives them the imperium. They also have the imperium proconsular giving them the power to govern the provinces. As holder of the power of the tribunes, they have the intercessio, that is to say the right to oppose any decision of the magistrates of the empire. As Julius Caesar , they bear the title of Pontifex Maximus which made them the leaders of the Roman religion. They receive a personal oath of allegiance from all inhabitants of the empire. Thanks to the Imperium the Emperor is all-powerful.

The Senate and the people are permeated by the fear of civil war in each estate. So they eagerly accept the idea that a descendant of the reigning prince took after his father. One of the duties of every emperor is to prepare the peaceful transfer of his throne. The most logical choice is, even in the eyes of the Romans, to appoint his son or adopt one. When the reigning emperor comes to pass without problem his power to his successor, it is considered the completion of a successful reign . In fact, the inheritance of the throne is certainly not a principle of public law, but a practice accepted by the aristocratic Roman opinion. In a crisis, a general carried in triumph by his soldiers with weapons can gain power supreme. The Praetorian Guard to oversee the safety of the emperors played a growing role in the conspiracy and the murders that punctuate the imperial period.

The imperial cult

The function of high priest gives a sacred emperors. In addition to popular belief, Scipio Africanus , Marius and Sylla had a divine character. Caesar has developed around him a legend god claiming descent from Venus and Aeneas. The emperor Augustus establishes the imperial cult. He deified Caesar and so, as his heir, and he rises above humanity. He said the son of Apollo. It also involves the whole community in worship engineering family and became the father of all, hence the title of father of his country. Augustus refuses to be deified during his lifetime. However, it leaves build altars of temples devoted to him especially in the East used to regard her as sovereign of the gods live, on condition that his name be associated with that of Rome deified. The movement continued after his death. All the emperors up under the auspices of a god. Gradually, they are treated as living gods throughout the empire. after death they are the apotheosis. The Antonines , take Jupiter Capitoline as supreme god. But when it is in Greek, Hadrian relies rather Zeus Olympios panhellenios or accompanied by Tyche (fortune) protective . During his reign the deification of the emperor still living rose in the East. The imperial ideology is more philosophical aspects. The Emperor's success on its merits (Virtus) and divine protection .

The imperial cult is also a way to accustom the inhabitants of the empire, so different in culture and beliefs to respect the authority of Rome through a deified emperor. Throughout the empire, we are restored or built temples devoted to the imperial cult. Ceremonies are held in honor of the emperor. This is an opportunity for the community to be in front of processions sacrifices, banquets and all kinds of shows.

Peace Roman

Between the reign of Augustus and the empire of Commodus was completely transformed, especially in the West. The provinces are considerably romanized: many provinces have received the Roman citizenship, the Roman way of life and its distinctive features were distributed: the use of Latin, Roman urbanism, baths shared many cultural traits, especially local aristocracies originally from Africa to the Caledonia. This progressive integration of provincial changed the composition of the ruling of the empire: in the decade 160 only half the senators are still originating from Italy , others come from the East, Gaul, Hispania, to Africa ... But these great senatorial families, and this also applies to the top of the equestrian order, are fully Roman whatever their origin, multiple marriages and alliances quickly relativizing these origins. For his leadership, the empire has become a common heritage that is administered on behalf of the Emperor, and if the commitment to his country of origin is always respected, reflecting the vibrancy of the ideal of the city is the Roman who founded a common political space. For populations smaller change is also very deep, even if it is harder to spot: the use of Latin was widespread even in the most humble people, although local languages often persist, and lifestyle in Roman has also been adopted widely. With the stabilization of borders, the Roman army was organized around large camps and large frontier areas where recruitment has progressively regionalized soldiers, without losing quality.

The imperial administration

The empire is divided into provinces. In the senatorial provinces, the governor, a proconsul or propraetor is appointed by the senate. At the time of Augustus, they are drawn for one year, and are assisted by Quaestors for financial administration. A procurator of equestrian order protects the interests of the prince (mines, quarries, imperial domains, special taxes). Senatorial provinces are at peace and there is no permanent legion. In imperial provinces the governor, a legate propraetor or procurator is appointed by the emperor. Egypt is headed by a prefect caught in the equestrian order appointed by the emperor. But the emperor has powers of control in all provinces. It may appoint special legates in the senatorial provinces. The Italy enjoys a privileged status. All the people are free citizens of Rome and beyond property taxes. Italy is not considered a province, it is administered directly by the Roman Senate. During the reign of Hadrian is divided into four districts outside the control of the Senate, the measure was revoked by his successor Antoninus Pius , under pressure from senators.

Governors are appointed for a period of 4 to 6 years. They maintain close ties with the central government through a well attended match. They must ensure that taxes, public policy, census, to the properties. They have a very limited government. In fact, they intervene in the lives of most provinces to try a Roman citizen control the disease important to public policy, solving financial problems of cities. Most administrative matters are resolved locally within the city. This is for the Romans, the ideal living environment. Where none existed, mainly in the West, the Romans have created. The administration fairer than under the Republic allows people to really focus Empire to the Empire.

In the capital, is located around the sovereign bodies and men who help him govern. The board of the Prince whom he surrounds himself to make critical decisions is composed of men chosen for their military skills, legal or diplomatic. The board is slowly becoming permanent and takes a prominent place in the government of the empire. Hadsrien also reorganizes the Privy Council, especially the component of Jurists . The praetorian prefect is the most important character of the surrounding Imperioli. He runs the Praetorian Guard and is the second in command during military expeditions. He even threatened the imperial power. At the time of Augustus, the most senior positions are assigned to a staff from the senatorial class or riding. Lower positions accrue to the freedmen of the emperor, or slaves of the house

Military organization

Until ^mid-second century, the military remains an army of conquest. Augustus Schedule of Illyria and tries in vain to conquer Germania. It establishes the borders of the Empire at the Rhine and Danube. Claude made the conquest of Britain , Trajan , that of Dacia , the Saudi. It is ephemeral conquest of Parthia. Beginning of Hadrian , the most important thing is to maintain the empire and not to conquer new territories. Hadrian waives the Armenia , the Mesopotamia and Assyria and made peace with the Parthians. The new eastern border of the Empire becomes the Euphrates , the consolidated files . A priority is to Hadrian Roman enclose the space behind a wall to protect the empire from the barbarians. We owe him the famous Hadrian's Wall in northern Britain. It is 120 km long and connects the mouth of the Tyne to Solway . She is flanked by 300 towers and protected by seventeen entrenched camps. In Germany , the Agri Decumates are also guaranteed by a limes leading from Mainz to Regensburg . Successors continue his work. The borders of Germany, East Africa and the walls are erected. We ended up giving them the names of files well in Latin, means simply Limes Road patrol the border. Of strategic tracks allowing convenient access to the borders to defend them if attacked. In all, the Romans 9,000 km border to defend. The army remains confined to the borders. The governors of border provinces that host legions are carefully chosen by the emperor because they provide the command. In all, 400,000 men divided into 30 legions defended the frontiers.

The Roman army consists of about 150,000 Roman legionaries and engaged citizenship for 20 years. They are backed up by auxiliary troops recruited among non-citizens who receive Roman citizenship after 25 years of this military service from Hadrian, part of the auxiliary stand of the Roman army as they keep their weapons Traditional . The Italians, who in the ^first century were still the majority in the legions, increasingly reluctant to do their military service. We must therefore seek recruits in the provinces who, when they are Romanized, they also are reluctant to go the army. The soldiers are recruiting more frequently in the smaller provinces in Romanized even if at that time, the Praetorian Guard and officers ( Centurions ) are always recruited from the Italians. The Roman army has become a professional army that has amalgamated the various peoples of the Empire. His unit from a given spirit bodies in rigorous training, iron discipline elevated to a deity, a specific religion camps around the traditional Roman gods and the imperial cult , quality supervision. We must the body of military engineers build canals, roads , of aqueducts , and fortifications of cities. The presence of the army at the borders is a major factor in economic development for these areas and a powerful instrument of Romanization.

Roman society under the Empire

The 80 million "inhabitants of the empire owned by birth or fortune of different social groups. It was born a slave, free man or a Roman citizen. The slaves have no rights. They lead a hard life on estates or in mines. In town their fate is more lenient. They work as domestic servants, craftsmen and artists to teachers or even the most literate. Some hold shop and pay a fee to their master in order to work. They can pay for postage. The subjects of the empire are free men who are not Roman citizens. They may testify in court but must pay the tributum, a direct tax. There is a Roman citizen by birth order or after 25 years of military service. citizen does not pay the tributum. Most people carry small businesses. In Rome, there are 200,000 poor citizens for whom free distribution of annona are vital.

The richest are grouped in the equestrian order , order equestrian or senatorial order decided by the emperor. In this society of orders: senatorial order, or order dcurional. From the Principate of Augustus, the equestrian order, is made available, and becomes the breeding ground for directors. The nobilitas distinguished recognition of the origin and not by statute. However, nobilitas loses some of its social markers. In the second century portraits of the procession disappears. It is indeed now reserved solely for the imperial funeral .

At the beginning of the empire, the company is not fixed. The slaves, mostly urban, can easily be freed by their master. Gradually all freemen were granted citizenship. the Edict of Caracalla , in 212, makes all men free Roman citizens. Are however excluded from citizenship the "dditices", that is to say the Barbarians . Gradually, however, distinctions are made between honestiores , powerful, and humiliores , humble. They are treated unequally before the law: the legal distinction between citizens and non-citizen has been replaced by a social distinction between rich and poor.

The city, site of the Roman civilization

In almost all cities of the empire, we saw earlier Roman. According to some estimates Rome , the capital has more than one million inhabitants under the Early Empire. The Romans call it simply the urbs , the city. It is with Alexandria , the largest city in the Roman world. Since the first century, the city has been much embellished by the emperors. These numerous monuments symbolize the greatness of Rome and the lifestyle of the Romans. The forums , places of politics under the Republic, became monumental including basilicas , many temples , triumphal arches and libraries. Hill Palatine is occupied by the imperial palace, the house of Augustus. But Rome is primarily in the popular imagination, the city games. Several outstanding monuments dedicated to them: the Circus Maximus between the Palatine and Aventine , The Coliseum , the largest amphitheater in the Roman world, devoted to the circus games , mostly fighting gladiators. The baths appear at the end of the Republic. The emperors built many for recreation of the plebeian Roman. To route the water baths and a large population in need, many aqueducts were built. In the ^first century, they may convey to the city of 992,000 cubic meters of water in 24 hours. The city grew over the centuries in a disorderly manner. The streets are narrow and winding. In 64, after the burning of Rome, Nero rebuilt the city with broad axes and airy. The richest living in large houses , while more modest living in apartment buildings, the insulae.

Large cities like Carthage , Antioch flourished again. The Romans built throughout the empire of cities called the regular plan hippodamian plan. The city is organized around two axes, the cardo and decumanus. There are all typical of the Roman monuments. The cities have had their heads a senate called local curia recruited among the rich inhabitants of the empire. They form the order dcurional. It is here that the judges are elected: aediles - responsible for policing the markets and roads - duumvirs - judges with judicial powers - duumvirs quinquennial - elected every five years and providing censorial functions. The ordo of decurions to manage finances (pecunia publication) and the territory of the city, ensure public order and relations with central government. Decurions the judges and especially finance largely from their own funds, the construction of monuments and temples. At are defined and legally required, they can add a voluntary donation from them. This practice known evergetism occupies an important place in the construction and life of cities. The aristocrats evergetism allows cities to show their generosity and their pomp, it can be a tool for self-celebration, supporting a family strategy, given the monument recalling the glory of the family for generations, at the same time he founded political and social cohesion: the gift of the benefactor may be conceived as a gift-cons who answers the respect that it shows the city and the political power it has conferred. Festivals, shows and various distributions, often from open-handedness, contribute, in cities, development and maintenance of a municipal culture, a civic cohesion. If historiography saw once in evergetism a factor in the abandonment of political office by the local aristocracy, this assumption is no longer being received, and we can not imagine a widespread desertion curies.

Dans les villes de l'ouest de l'empire, le latin se rpand tandis que l'est reste fidle la langue grecque.

See also

References

1. ^{a , b , c , d , e , f and g} Paul Petit, Yann Le Bohec, The High Empire, Encyclopaedia Universalis, DVD, 2007
2. Claude Lepelley, Nero Article, Encyclopaedia Universalis, DVD, 2007
3. ^{a , b and c} Vronique Vassal The new Hadrian History No. 335, October 2008, p 28 and 29
4. Y the Bohec, Antoninus Pius (138-161) in Bibliography
   • Paul Veyne , "The Empire Greco-Roman", Paris, Le Seuil, 2005.
   • Paul Little, General History of the Roman Empire, Le Seuil, 1974
   • Christophe Badel, The nobility of the Roman Empire. Masks and virtue. Champ Vallon, Seyssel, 2005. ( ISBN 978-2876734159 )
   • Hacquard George, Jean Dautry, Olivier Maisani, ancient Roman Guide, 1952 by Hachette, multiple editions:
   • Michel Christol and Daniel Nony, the origins of Rome to the barbarian invasions, Hachette, 1974.

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