Religions
Religion has been defined for the first time by Cicero as "the deal of a higher nature which is called God and worship him" . In Chinese, the term zong jiao () , invented in the early twentieth century to translate that religion is connoted the idea of learning for a community . Finally, Buddhism is considered a religion, so there seems to be no mention of God or of divine nature .
There is currently no definition that fits all that use to invoke religion . Religion can be understood as a way of life and seeking answers to deeper questions of humanity, in that it relates to the philosophy . But it can also be seen as what is more contrary to reason and considered synonymous with superstition. It can be personal or communal, private or public, linked to the policy or want to break free. It can also recognize themselves in the definition and practice of worship , a teaching , of spiritual exercises and conduct in society.
Religion is the subject of academic research in humanities. Disciplines such as the history , the sociology , the anthropology or psychology , study of phenomena or facts known religious without relying on a definition that would correspond uniformly to all that is well studied. According to Pierre Gisel , the question of what a religion is an open question: should we be content to believe that religions have always an institutional form with a clergy, pastors, imams, monks or gurus, or consider religion as also practices personal development spanning areas ranging from sports to philosophy , and that booksellers grouped under the generic term ' esoteric ?
The question of what religion is also a philosophical question, the philosophy can make some answers, but also challenge the obvious definitions that are proposed. The concept of religion may finally be the subject of theological elaborations, every religion can have its own assessment of what might be called religion.
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| Sunni | Shiism | Other |
| Vajrayana | Theravada | Mahayana |
| Chinese religions | Hinduism | Judaism |
| African traditional religions | Other | |
Definitions of religion
Origin of concept
If the term religion is attested from antiquity in the works of Plautus and Terence to III and II century BC. J.-C . must await the works of Lucretius and Cicero for that is the subject of philosophical writings. This reflection will be extended by Latin Christian writers during the late antiquity with the theme of "true religion". During the medieval period a religion could designate a religious congregation, in the sense that "enter religion" meant joining a religious order . At that time, Thomas Aquinas defines religion as a moral virtue, that is to say a human disposition to do the will of God . In the Renaissance , the great discoveries have led the Europeans to question the specificity of Christianity and its similarities with respect to non-monotheistic religions. In the eighteenth century began a new phase of reflection on the nature of religion, including Locke and Hume in the work which established an opposition between religion and natural religion positively, that is to say between religion as it should be according to human reason and religion as it presents itself to observation. After them, in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a philosophy of religion has been developed in the works of Kant Hegel and Schleiermacher. This philosophy has greater influence than Karl Marx that Christian theology . Theorizing about religion, its study and its definition in the modern humanities depends on definitions that were given by those who are considered the origin of sociology , especially Durkheim and Max Weber. Those are the different historical stages that arise modern conceptions of religion used today in the humanities. However, the universality or the adequacy of definitions that have been proposed of religion is questioned, particularly because of the difficulty in finding an equivalent to the category of religion which seems to Western invention .
Although the idea of religion seems to have its own history in the West, the term has today equivalents in all languages. The case may be, neologisms have been created. These terms have their own etymology and do not necessarily exactly the same connotations or the same range from one language to another, the same way that the word religion has not always been exactly the same meaning in Western history. For example the term Sanskrit ( dharma ) can mean "faith", "religion" or "law" while the sinogram "zong jiao", a more recent, is connoted the idea of teaching. China is using this term that the law recognizes five religions: Buddhism , the Taoist , the Islam , the Protestantism and Catholicism. Thus religion, whatever its origin, is not a question solely Western. In this sense, numerous studies now offer not only to study religion from the history of this concept in Western culture, but also interested in the history of its equivalents in other cultures. These studies may also seek to show the impact has been the projection of the Western idea of religion in other societies, such as the invention of Hinduism in India, or that of a Confucian China. In this sense, study the history of the idea of religion and its equivalents amounts to performing a work of deconstruction. At the same time these studies may allow Western to learn what may be showing their religion in some aspects of how it is being considered by others.
Definitions Durkheimian and Weberian
Academic disciplines such as sociology , the anthropology , the psychology or history , take religion or religions to be studied. Insofar as they claim a scientific character , they must necessarily propose a definition .
The definitions have been proposed most often repeat the idea that religion is a belief system. These terms are borrowed from the definition in 1912 had asked the sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), for whom religion is "a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say separate, prohibited, beliefs and practices which unite into a single moral community called a Church all those who adhere to " . In this definition, the notion of sacred is not to recognize that the sacred is intrinsically sacred, nor claimed that beliefs can be an absolute flood since Durkheim meant to show that what was thought or held sacred in a particular social group, which he calls Church, was not in another . On the other hand, according to Durkheim, the sacred always revert to the name because it is a community holds sacred, it repels another sacred. The multitude of variations which led to this definition has tried to mitigate the Christian character that gives the term Church, while keeping it from being a belief system .
Another approach to religion which has authority in the human sciences was that of Max Weber (1864-1920) which envisaged at the same time that Durkheim, religion as a regulator of life in a world where irrational element is always present, without being specific to religion . For Weber, religion meets the needs of societies. It is not irrational in principle but the process of rationalization experienced companies may eventually Max Weber led to disenchantment, it is "the elimination of magic as a technique of salvation" . According to their doctrines, religions can play different roles in this process. However, the progressive rationalization that ultimately leads to disenchantment may also lead to reflux of religions in the area of the irrational .
Both definitions have deeply influenced the study of religions. Durkheim's definition is more focused on what religions offer to believe that while the definition of Max Weber it is turned more directly to what is observable, that is to say, social practices .
Questioning definitions
The definitions of religion who are considering starting the idea of belief or the presence of a supernatural element in the world distinguish between what one side would be in the range of scientific knowledge and checked and the other a given inaccessible to reason. This distinction corresponds with varying nuances to that of reason and faith, or a natural knowledge of God and knowledge revealed in the theologies of various religions. The first objection to these definitions is that the opposition which they operate is easily detected in doctrines of monotheistic Judaism, Christianity and Islam, but much more difficult in other traditions, including Asian traditions. Thus these approaches to the religion based on the idea of the presence in the world of a given inaccessible to reason, seem forged on a particular model of religion, those involving the supernatural revelation of God n is not the world, and it seems doubtful that we can address all religions from such definitions. For authors such as Daniel Dubuisson or Timothy Fitzgerald, "religion" is a category ineffective intellectual, born of a desire to affirm the transcendent ideal of a global culture, ultimately, "it does There is no theoretical basis for coherent non-theological study of religion as an academic discipline "except as a last resort definitions refer to a Christian theism .
The second objection to this definition is that the philosopher Jacques Bouveresse called "a breach in our most basic assumptions in matters of theory of knowledge and epistemology " , in which gap may religion s' engulf. The question is whether the scientific study of religions that would address the reason for this is not considered a priori as a purely rational, is itself free of beliefs and irrational. This is not only the rationality of religion, which is involved in such an approach but also the science that purports to study because it claims to justify the irrational by rational discourse. Every building is necessarily based on a rational system of axioms and / or assumptions which, by definition, can not themselves be rationally demonstrated. This gap can lead either to the idea that no certain knowledge is possible, nor in religion than in another area, or that all the speeches that are accepted by a community or even a single individual, are true point of view that supports them . Thus the negative assessment that relate science to religion when the deal in terms of beliefs is returned on what science could argue in a rational approach. Any speech can be regarded as admissible and any religious belief is held to be respectable. In this sense some players current debates on religion, as Regis Debray argue that criticism of religion is intended as the replacement of one religion by another that is still a belief system no more verifiable than that which succeeds . Jacques Bouveresse calls this "automatic replacement" of religion disappears for a new religion and he is concerned that this idea back in speeches rationalist, devoted to the illusion, if not false, as necessary in all forms of thought, whereas the claim ELABORATION verifiable knowledge according to the criteria of a universal reason would become a problem of arrears .
The third objection is that finally the inability to define a field of study that correspond to religion: should we just study the religions that have an institutional form with a clergy, pastors, imams, monks or gurus, or place also in this field of study than proposals for practical personal development spanning areas ranging from sports to philosophy, and that booksellers grouped under the generic term esotericism ?
Should we define religion?
In 1987, Danile Hervieu-Lger , in an article entitled "Should we define religion? "Questioned the intent to destroy religion What could be some definitions of religion, sociology, and what might be possible to foresee a new definition . The category of religion has done since the 1980s, the subject of numerous publications that challenge the appropriateness of the definitions have been proposed. However, for researchers who claim a scientific nature of their approach, put a definition of what is taken as object of study is not optional . In this sense, for Jonathan Z. Smith , the word "religion" is a term coined by researchers for their own needs .
Today there is hardly any academic publications that take the risk of a definition of religion without providing a broad explanation of the limitations and problems posed by their definition, as it seems impossible to place in a single definition all current forms of thought and social phenomena that relate to religion. And religion may be denied a general definition in favor of a set of categories . So there are elements of definitions for some researchers, but they were adopted without uniformity, while others refuse to consider that it is possible to scientifically study the phenomena known as "religious," since it is covered with one or the other idea of religion.
Studies of social sciences deal with social phenomena and behaviors in a place, a group at a given time. The definition of the object of research can focus on these elements while the fact whether or name of religion remains an open question. Other approaches focus on the idea that religion is a bedrock of beliefs underpinning social coherence and defines the fields of behavior that are acceptable or unacceptable in a society. With this approach returns the model of civil religion that has fueled a renewed study of the religion of the Romans in antiquity , but also to consider today the political dimension of religion in all societies . Finally, there are also philosophical and theological approaches agree on the ground of what is to be held true. Those who expose the falsity of religions and claim atheism are among the players in this debate. For example Richard Dawkins came from the scientific theories about the origin of religions. These have given place to memetics , a discipline whose status as science is not unanimous. In France, Michel Onfray argues in an equally combative for atheism and against all religions. Other authors discuss religion from their religious tradition. Approaches to Christian religion or religions are spread in a wide range of theologies will say pluralistic, making the study of religions without prior definition of religion , to works that are more directly focused on study the concept of religion as philosophy of religion from Paul Tillich . Finally, some philosophers such as Pierre Hadot opportunity to rediscover the philosophy as a life commitment and practice of spiritual exercise, which places philosophy directly in the field of religion, and lets remember that religions are also present as Philosophy .
Latin origins of the concept religion
The Hellenization of thought in the ancient Greco-Roman
What we call today and in retrospect "religion of the Romans', was not, according to John Scheid, in the interests of a theological nature of the gods but in the effectuation of ritual and celebration ceremonies that were part integral to a non-theorized social life . In this sense, the study of religion of the Romans showed that they had very little interest in the question of the nature of the gods . Their "religion" is rather understood as a "civil religion." Religion is "intimately linked to the policy which it reveals the deep structure" . It has to end the success of Rome. It is a religion to which one belongs to its citizens and not by conviction .
The meaning would have had the term religion in Latin before he made the subject of speculation is even more difficult to establish that ancient sources are few and it does not provide definition. In addition, the works of Terence and Plautus in which there are few occurrences are translations of ancient Greek works. The etymology of the word given by Cicero in 44 BC religion. JC is not very helpful because it is in a work entirely for the Latins have different philosophical point of views. From this it is possible to entertain older, thinking about the nature of religion in Latin literature is closely linked to the dissemination of philosophical ideas from Greece. Latin literature itself was formed in the effort undertaken by the Latins to adapt their language to the thinking of Greek and translate their works. The origin of the word or the idea of religion is in this sense no more Latin than Greek.
Cicero , and to a lesser extent, Lucretia , was the first Latin author to speak "objectively" religion. However, their writings date from a time that historians consider also as marking the beginning of a religious crisis in Roman society. Yves Lehman crisis is due to "manipulation of religion in politics" . This religious crisis is concomitant to an invention of religion in Latin literature, it is also possible to think that changing the attitude of politicians, which is evident in the inauguration of the Supreme Pontiff by Caesar and politics religious Augustus, is linked to the birth of an idea of religion among the Romans. Religion becoming something, it becomes possible to describe, critique, defend, fight or to use it.
The end of all political
According to Hannah Arendt , politics in the Greek sense can be understood as focusing on freedom . The Greeks, freedom is above all the social status of a minority of individuals: "The free man is one who is not subject to the coercion of another . . Women, minors and slaves were excluded. Politics, as discussion on how to govern the city has to end to ensure that free men "do-not-rule-or-be-governed" . According to Jean-Joel Duhot , this mode of government is not particularly peaceful. Athens was a city constantly at war with the neighboring cities. Democracy itself was stirred violent conflict. "In the constant game of alliances, negotiations, defections, reversals between cities, politicians are frequently suspected. Passions are exacerbated and sometimes violent reactions. "
Hannah Arendt sees this situation led to a certain institutionalization of philosophy. Those who were "convinced that the discussion about anything happen either but the reality of deception, not truth but lies," wanted a space of freedom in public debates in which all involved. Philosophical life, as posed by Plato in the creation of the School of the Academy , the institution is well within the polis an area of freedom of speech to a small number of individual free of the "free discussion" among all. "In this way was created, next to the field of political freedom, a new space of freedom much more real, which still operates today in the form of academic freedom and academic freedom. "(P. 95)
The conquest of Greece by Alexander the Great did not put an end to Greek philosophy as an area both based on political freedom but also free from the common liberty. The Athenians were quickly accommodated domination mac? ? Donnienne. Built in the kingdom, their city was losing political importance, but she retained autonomy in a kingdom that were guaranteed not to pass under foreign domination. The empire of Alexander, marks the beginning of a new form of radiation for Athens. "Provincialise politically, it remains for centuries an intellectual capital, particularly philosophical." Macedonian armies have done well to return the entire Middle East and Egypt in the sphere of Hellenism. When Rome extended its empire across the Mediterranean, it was left to turn to invade the Greek philosophical tradition. The Hellenization of Roman culture is sometimes described as Revenge of the losers in the sense that the military and political domination of the Romans, is an undeniable cultural superiority of the Greeks.
When thinking of the Greeks won the Romans, it has led to a questioning of the unity of religion as encompassing reality. During the first century BC. AD, various Latin intellectuals who made their philosophical arguments of the Greeks, and will try to realize the legitimacy of the civil religion of Romans side with one hand and the mystical practices of interpretation of myths and secondly, the current rationalist philosophy. Religion losing its unity, it is not particularly in any areas that are separated due to the loss of unity. Thus, we can say without hesitation that the religion of the Romans is more like the policy, or interpretation of myths or it is in the field of philosophy. There are in the works of ancient highly developed arguments that situate each in turn religion into one or other of these three areas.
Scaevola spoke of three kinds of gods, the gods of the poets, those statesmen and those of philosophers. Definition of religion by Cicero This view of religion in relation to citizenship appears repeatedly in the works of Cicero. This is particularly true in the case for Flacus where he wrote "Every city has its own religion, we have ours." With this statement, Cicero intends to argue before the judge that the testimony of a Roman citizen is much more reliable than that of a Greek or a Jew. What gives this a legal argument is the idea of testimonium religionem juris or guilds, that is to say an oath before the gods. And Romans considered themselves the best clerics for Rome ruled the world through the favor of the gods that knew him for excellence religious citizens. This idea that the fate of Rome depended rites performed accurately and in accordance with the tradition of ancestor was difficult to refute in antiquity. It is in the profoundly ritualistic religion of the Romans that returns the verb "read" as indicated by Cicero etymology of religion. It was actually "read" the rites performed to ensure it was done according to standards and be able to consider leaving. There is not asked to believe, but to do and do the rituals of worship as it is a necessary requirement. This, again refuting the idea that Augustine devoted many pages of the City of God. Although various uses of the term religion in the work of Cicero is a civic and traditional religion, the definition he has given this as mainly concerning the divine nature: - Cicero, the invention oratory . This is the definition the oldest we have. Cicero gives in the treatment of the invention oratory written in 84 BC. JC when he was twenty years. Having to deal with the divine nature does not necessarily refer to a concern by a metaphysical or speculative. It may be simply to perform rites such as the traditional manner. In this sense, the passage where this definition is intended to explain that the "customary law" (ius Consuetudines) refers to "natural law" (ius naturae), that is to say that what is not written and spread by tradition stems from what is rational and responds to the order of nature. Cicero defends the idea that the law does not depend on opinions but it is based on what nature teaches us the same way that nature teaches religion. In Stoic thought, nature is the divine order of the cosmos. Cicero defines how the religion is to present it as "a report to the cosmos, is wise and able." Everything men do is governed by the divine order. Thus, this definition of religion by Cicero reflects the introduction of Greek philosophical ideas of origin in Roman society. Here the idea that the cosmos is ruled by a divine nature can search for legitimation of Roman religion and customs. However, among the ideas from Greece, are also traditions of interpretation of myths and criticism of the philosophers about the gods. For example the euhemerism , that the gods are not gods but historical figures who were mistaken for gods. The arrival of philosophical ideas from Greece into the Roman culture poses a problem that will radically shake religion: first, they suggest that religion is to worry about a divine nature, and other except that the gods do not exist. Roman citizenship was gradually extended to all freemen of the Empire, which gave them joint civic rights and duties of religion. While at the same time, the religious conceptions of the Romans will not cease to evolve, violation of religious duties will the pattern of repression as official and legal dereliction of civic duty. The prosecution of crimes against religion or crime of impiety was thus the matrix of legal persecution of antiquity . The response of Christian authors to the charge of crimes against religion consisted, not to dismiss religion as such but to enforce the arguments of philosophers to overturn the indictment: - Tertullian, Apology, 24, 9. This argument is echoed by many fathers of the Latin Church. It worked so well that, until recently, is not without some reservations that were given to the religious life of the Romans as a religion. Considered by historical research as essentially a worship of gods, the religion of the Roman religion was seen as a moderate without much depth or theological foundations. Thus, paradoxically, the term religion is inherited from the traditional culture of the Romans, but there appears commonly refers to a civil religion that will not be subsequently considered truly deserving the title of religion . In City of God , Augustine testifies that in his day the term does not yet in common parlance, the idea that religion is to care for the divine nature, as philosophers have thought and Christian writers in their wake: - Saint Augustine, The City of God, X, 1, trans. Lucien Jerphagon In this passage from the city of God, St. Augustine seems to renounce the use of the term religion, however there is nothing as it abandons employment elsewhere in his work but in another sense. This passage of St. Augustine is one of the rare examples of the "original meaning, Latin and civic religion of the term in ancient sources who talk almost exclusively from a philosophical or theological understanding of religion, from Cicero to Augustine . At the end of the third century, Lactantius relegere disputed etymology given by Cicero. For Lactantius, "It is the bond of piety that we are connected (religati) and attached (obstetrics) to God. That is where religion has got its name, and not, as Cicero said, the word relegere. " . According to Pierre Gisel, the reason for the link highlighted in the etymology of Lactantius is the evolution of religion in late antiquity. Christianity is part of the components of the religious life of that time, but society as a whole has grown from a primarily ritualistic religion, which emphasized the etymology relegere given by Cicero, religion or philosophy of self-questioning in "connection" with what is not so. Thus, according to Pierre Gisel , preference for the etymology religare emphasize that the individual is just one part of the cosmos led to the wisdom to maintain balance at all, he is a member of a community that is not the whole city, he has his network of relationships, it can turn, have their gods or God, "in Late Antiquity, the new form of religion that Christianity is part human-centered, the individual or person, and the divine is directly reported; reciprocally elsewhere: the human is polarized by the divine. " Latin Christian authors of late antiquity were gradually resumed and adapted the idea of Roman religion to Christianity in terms of "true religion". This term does not mean that there are many religions and only one is true, but trying to define what conditions commonly practiced religion can be considered true. They defend the thesis has its origin in philosophical writings older, especially those of Cicero to be true, religion must agree with the philosophy. The first author has used the phrase "true religion" is Minucius Felix . He does it in a text which nothing in the original Latin does not say explicitly that he is a Christian text but it is considered as such because it incorporates elements of the Christian doctrine of the Logos is to say, because of Christ by which the world was created, which allows those who use their reason to have a knowledge of God by studying the creation: - Minucius Felix, Octavius, 17. The argument that religion is the true philosophy is argued by Lactantius in the divine institution. Lactantius argued that there are "masters of wisdom," who do not in any way access to the gods, and secondly, the priests of the religion that one does not learn to be wise, it is clear that one is not true religion and the other is not true wisdom (III, 4) " To describe the opposition between philosophy and religion, Lactantius compares a religious side to a son who obeys the father, and another philosopher to a slave who obeys the master. The relationship between father and son characterizes religion in that filial piety is essential in the Roman religion, and the relationship between master and slave describes the relationship between master and disciples in the schools of philosophy. It is not inconceivable that Lactantius, who wanted to live in poverty although he lived at the court of Emperor Constantine, has wanted this picture, cause intellectual elites in the appearing of the slaves. Indeed, the problem dealt Lactantius is not only to grant philosophy with religion because they seem to be two competing systems, but also to take up the issue of consistency between the wisdom of life that would religion of many or ignorant, and wisdom of life, confined to the walls of schools of philosophy, and which Cicero said she fled the crowds. To escape this alternative, each must therefore both be considered as a slave and a son. If the master and the father are not one and the same person, one who seeks to obey the master can not be a good son, while those who obey the father wants to be a disobedient slave. So do not let the son in ignorance of what the teacher teaches, or slaves (ie, the philosophers say) not to obey that command their filial piety. The thesis of identity between philosophy and religion is taken in 390 by Augustine in the treaty of true religion: - Saint Augustine, Of True Religion, G, 8. . The demonstration of Augustine is comparable to that of Lactantius, it also supports the question of the relationship between religion as many of wisdom and philosophy as an elitist practice. Committing an imaginary dialogue with Plato, Augustine practiced by the true religion, he does get excited about the fact that with Christianity, it is finally possible to see many follow the path of wisdom, showing that for Augustine the Christian religion is true philosophy. However, in how Augustine reflects the relationship between philosophy and religion, it is only that the people put to practice the philosophy of the elite but also the philosophers start to the school of truth directly accesible to each by faith. In the treatise On the happy life Augustin battle so the idea that "the most learned men have minds filled and much larger than those of the ignorant." In this dialogue involving the small entourage had Augustine at Ostia, it enthuses them about his mother and her young son Godsend. Monique's words on what a happy life, Augustine is responding: In antiquity, the philosophy does not present itself first as an intellectual reflection that should lead to the conclusion as to acts, but it was a commitment of all existence. Real life choices, she practiced in schools in which they entered as later it will be possible to say one enters religion . Pierre Hadot commenting on the fact that Christianity is as philosophy, writes: "Christianity is definitely a lifestyle. He presented himself as a philosophy poses no problem. But in so doing, it adopted certain values and practices to ancient philosophy. Was it legitimate? " Pierre Hadot emitted Doubts about the legitimacy of Christianity to philosophy assumes that there is recognition that the ancient philosophy is something "clean", that is to say something that can not be present elsewhere than in a genuine form of philosophy. In trying to "popularize" Christianity would somehow degraded the spiritual exercises of philosophy. In this sense Pierre Hadot recall the words of Nietzsche that Christianity is "a Platonism for the people." The desire to reconcile religion and philosophy, however, was not reserved for Christians in antiquity, and this issue had been taken over by philosophers independently of Christianity. In this sense, a concern under both "missionary" and "popular" in Socrates, he described it as "out of the world and the world, transcending the men by his moral requirement and the commitment it involves, mixed men and things because there can be no true philosophy in everyday life. Pierre Hadot and evokes a position of transcendence that balance the engagement of the philosopher in society. The care of the self is inextricably sake of the city and concern for others, however, for Pierre Hadot, "When the philosopher realizes that he is totally powerless to provide any remedy to the corruption of the city, what can he else to do except practice philosophy alone or with others? . A religion as a religious order (Homily on the pearl, XII century) Thomas Aquinas Summa Theologica IIa IIae, qq.80-100. John Locke and David Hume Kant , Schleiermacher and Hegel Early in The Savage Mind, Claude Levi-Strauss is positioned in a debate that has accompanied the study of religions in the twentieth century and continues today . The question is whether the categories, that is to say the words that we use to talk about what we study, its own culture or to allow us to identify universal realities? For religion this question is to ask if she would not be a purely Western idea, in which case it would be futile to study in other civilizations, or whether finally, despite the cultural peculiarities that make communication difficult and switches from one culture to another it is legitimate to speak of religion in the singular, as something universal. The positions are very divergent on this issue, some authors such as Daniel Dubuisson 's idea of religion is a theological concept peculiar to the West , for Jean Grondin religion is universal . Claude Levi-Strauss is without doubt the one who pushed further the idea of cultural relativity. This relativity is analogous to the theory of relativity in cosmology. He asserts that phenomena occur under the same laws everywhere in the universe, but to understand them we must consider the context. In the language of Claude Levi-Strauss, this means that the same governing structures and can recognize in all civilizations, while the differences we see are related to the fact that each civilization has a breakdown of knowledge and focuses on which it seems most useful, depending on historical conditions in which they develop. This concentration on what is most useful result that cultures can make or not to see certain things. Now everyone believes that what he sees and what he is able to nominate the most important. Thus, to Claude Levi-Strauss: "Every civilization has a tendency to overestimate the objective orientation of his thought Meanwhile, Claude Levi-Strauss does not denounce as the ethnocentrism of every nation that seeks simply to describe as a phenomenon among many and which should be considered. The approaches, however, are to emphasize that the cultures or religions are irreducible to one another are the opposite of the relativity of cultures studied by Claude Levi-Strauss. However, it is customary to speak of "cultural relativism" to describe them, which can be confusing. Claude Levi-Strauss is clearly opposed to relativism. In a chapter of Race and History on the issue of westernization , he writes: "It is possible, we will say, in terms of abstract logic, that every culture is incapable of judging the truth about another because a culture can not escape from itself and that its assessment is therefore trapped in a relativism without appeal. But look around you, beware of what's happening in the world for a century, and all your speculations will collapse. " The book Faith and Knowledge of Jacques Derrida illustrates this debate. The author comments in an allusive style and telegraph section of the Vocabulary of Indo-European institutions in which Emile Benveniste noted the absence of the term religion in many languages . This finding is general, it applies to the Sanskrit, Chinese and Hebrew. However Jacques Derrida observes that Benvniste nevertheless agreed to recognize the Greek term treskia as equivalent to the word religion. For Derrida this proposal is not so much an inconsistency as a symptom of what happened in history, namely the "mondialatinisation" of religion that has found "equivalent" in the words, which certainly come from somewhere in history, but also repeated every day on TV or anywhere, and in this sense do not or no longer places and specific origin. Still on the question of the word, Derrida observes that to answer the question of "knowing" if religion is untranslatable, it must respond with sharp words from one language. In this case a European language and Latin will respond "reliable", a word which refers to the fides, faith, the fiduciarity, that is to say finally to religion. What is Derrida remarks by opposing a language with a linguist's assertion is that words set limits, but that these limits have nothing insurmountable. And while admitting the anchor latin religion as a word used to isolate something clean to the Latins, he refuses to stay within that limit and wants to continue to talk about religion in the singular and universal manner. In a sense quite contrary and on behalf of the scientific, Daniel Dubuisson denounced in the West and religion, "the arrogant pretensions of the West to say and think the man according to religious criteria that it has even defined. " He resumed Claude Levi-Strauss , the idea of ethnocentrism cultural denouncing the manner in which conducted the research of social sciences since it claim to study religion with a concept he deems too busy historically and theologically. Chinese religions are designated by the term zong jiao. Goossaert Vincent, in his article devoted to the career of this expression shows how this neologism was reintroduced in the Chinese language and writing in the late twentieth century . He traces the origin of this neologism to the loan in 1901 by Chinese scholars of the Japanese expression shky literally "school rituals," which in Japan, designated with the same characters the transmission of knowledge and rites within a group. When it is adopted by the Chinese it means "a structured system of beliefs and practices, separated from society and organizing the faithful in churches . The question of what might be called religion in the Chinese context remains a problem. Studies on Chinese religions usually distinguish three traditional religions which correspond to three lessons: The Confucianism , the Taoism and Buddhism. It is noteworthy that of these three lessons, only Buddhism and Taoism are officially recognized religions in China today. Cette absence du confucianisme ne tient pas seulement au fait qu'il avait t jug rtrograde par les rvolutionnaires du XX e sicle, mais aussi au fait que les enseignement de Confucius ont donn lieu ce que l'on appelle sans unit le confucianisme , et qui s'apparente davantage une idologie de gouvernement variable selon les poques et ses promoteurs, qu' une religion. L'attitude du gouvernement qui hier combattait le confucianisme et aujourd'hui le valorise, confirme cette dimension du confucianisme . D'autre part, les trois enseignements traditionnels n'avaient pas le statut de religions distinctes. Les Occidentaux qui voient dans les temples chinois les statues des trois matres que sont Laozi, Confucius et Bouddha parlent de syncrtisme parce qu'ils envisagent ces enseignements comme des religions distinctes, mais cette ide est loin d'tre une vidence dans la tradition chinoise. Plutt que de parler des religions chinoises en distinguant uniquement trois courants traditionnels, comme s'il s'agissait de confessions distinctes au sens o l'on parle de religions en Occident, il semble possible d'envisager la religion en Chine comme un ensemble organique de doctrines et de communauts qui prsente une certaine cohrences d'ensemble et qui a un socle commun dans les trois enseignements. La religion populaire peut cependant tre envisage comme un quatrime courant, car, s'il existe quelques communauts qui pratiquent de manire relativement exclusive et orthodoxe l'un des trois enseignements, l'essentiel des pratiques religieuses en Chine chappent ce cadre. Pour Vincent Goossaert La religion populaire au sens de religion partage par l'ensemble du peuple , fait appel aux liturgies et aux critures des trois traditions constitues, mais se dveloppe librement en dehors et autour d'elle . La pratique religieuse en Chine tait l'objet d'une rgulation institutionnelle importante, le temple chinois est une institution politique : l'tat s'en sert pour gouverner, et le peuple y fonde son organisation . C'est l'tat qui autorise ou interdit les temples, mais il ne gre pas vritablement les temples, pas plus qu'il ne dfinit la doctrine des diffrents cultes. Il n'a pas non plus l'initiative dans la promotion d'un temple : le plus souvent l'tat ne peut que rguler ou entriner des tats de fait. Les interdictions taient plutt rares et brutales. Les autorisations prenaient la forme d'une canonisation de la divinit par son inscription au registre des sacrifices. Les autorisations sont accordes moyennant quelques contreparties et elles s'accompagnent de la dfinition d'un rgime fiscal dont va dpendre la vie conomique du temple. Chaque temple, pour pouvoir fonctionner, devait donc faire l'objet d'une autorisation bien ngocie. Tout d'abord, l'tat veillait la moralit des cultes rendus avec pour principal critre celui de l'intrt de l'empire chinois. Les cultes lis des divinits lubriques ou violentes faisaient l'objet d'une procdure de recentrage au cours de la procdure de canonisation qui permettait de corriger quelques aspects de la doctrine ou du culte en question. Mais, plus que les questions d'honorabilit des cultes, les questions financires jouent un rle prpondrant dans l'attitude de l'tat vis--vis des temples. En effet, les constructions nouvelles d'un temple ainsi que les ftes religieuses exubrantes sont considres comme des dpenses inutiles et un frein aux autres travaux plus utiles au dveloppement de l'Empire. Conjointement aux autorisations donnes pour les cultes locaux, dans un esprit de donnant-donnant , l'tat imposait des cultes pour tout l'Empire qui, grce aux offrandes des fidles, devaient permettre de financer les travaux publics. Par ailleurs, la famille impriale tait propritaire de certains temples dont le prestige tait considrable, tel le temple du ciel Pkin, mais d'un impact social trs limit puisque la population n'y avait pas accs. Aujourd'hui encore, si les pratiques religieuses prives ou communautaires se rapportent des lments d'orthodoxie propres tel ou tel courant, ce sont toujours les autorits civiles qui se rservent la lgitimit de juger qu'un culte peut tre rendu, qu'un doctrine peut tre enseigne ou qu'une communaut peut se runir. La libert religieuse en Chine, c'est la possibilit lgale de mener des activits religieuses dans le cadre et selon les doctrines valides par le gouvernement et l'ventualit qu'une pratique interdite ou non autorise ne soit pas rprime. Les problmatiques thologiques et philosophiques sur lesquelles se sont construites les perceptions occidentales des autres civilisations ont t progressivement relayes au cours du XIX e sicle par des thories revendiquant un caractre plus scientifiques. La thorie de l' volution des espces de Darwin eut ds sa publication un impact considrable sur l'tude des religions, des cultures et des civilisations. Dans le mme temps paraissaient les thorie de Freud sur la psychanalyse , ce dernier s'intressant lui aussi la religion qu'il dfinissait comme une nvrose collective rendant le monde supportable. Dans ce contexte marqu d'une critique du christianisme amplement dploye depuis le XVIII e , se sont dveloppes l' anthropologie , la linguistique et la sociologie qui ont cherch dcrire la religion de manire scientifique. In the nineteenth of these images were kept distant world including the exploration narratives illustrating the travels of Bougainville or Dumont d'Urville. The praise of the charms of the exotic to articulate the idea of a paradise lost which is doubtful he never existed, as in Baudelaire who, in Les Fleurs du Mal, discusses "The languorous Asia and burning Africa, a whole world distant, absent, almost dead. "And wondered" The innocent paradise, full of furtive pleasures, is it already far more than India or China? Anne Cheng believes that the images of China inherited from the Enlightenment philosophers and continue to convey the idea of a Far East "where everything is order and beauty, luxury, peace and prosperity" are the ideological fiction, "There are even places of wonder, as Anne Cheng, if those who find their account to convey such an image of China does not pursue less to speak any Chinese reality that exploit a certain weariness West, as did the Orientalist vogue during the colonial era. " Attacking him as caricatures of the exotic, Claude Levi-Strauss began his book Tristes Tropiques, saying "I hate traveling and explorers. And here I am telling my expeditions. " Anthropology has built on this paradox. The simple act of going on the ground turns up observations because explorers are socialized with the companies they will discover, so it is no longer the same as they want. In return, the observer is itself transformed by what he receives for his comments. The anthropology course that is after an object that contributes to revolutionize and change in trying to observe it. Thus, the anthropologist does not know if it works to safeguard or disappearance of cultures . The approach anthropology is based on the idea that we have of humanity as we talked about in terms of person, individual, social welfare or animal on a biological level. It is understood that when it comes to anthropology as the study of "man" and his behavior is to all mankind that is, without exclusion or hierarchy . Max Muller (1823-1900) was one of those who tried to base the study of religion as a science while continuing to enroll in a theological perspective. Max Mller's approach is partly driven by the desire to make a proposal against the theory of Darwin on the origin and evolution of species. This project is evident in the book Origin and Development of Religion published in 1879 whose title echoes the Origin of Species published twenty years earlier by Charles Darwin. The central idea that develops Max Mller on religions is based on a theory of language, Mller is also considered one of the founders of the language. It envisages the existence of a Logos or rationality common to all languages. This precedes the diversification of languages and remains the rational principle of each language. Its focus is particularly on the myths, he presents as diseases of language in the sense that they hide in a rational discourse that does not look for rationality. Comparative mythology that developed Max Mller aims to find the language clean behind all these expressions sick. He defined religion: - Max Muller, 1873, quoted by Daniel Dubuisson in the West and Religion, p. 92. Hillary Rodrigues takes as its founding principle of the new approach than trying Max Muller, adapting a phrase from Goethe to the study of religion: "Those who know someone knows someone. . The idea is simply that the study of religion can not simply knowledge of a single religion. We must therefore make a large number of field observations in various contexts so that from the many comments it is possible to propose a general explanatory theory . Mircea Eliade (1907-1986) Romanian-born, taught history of religion at the University of Chicago. He has collected during his career many myths, rituals and symbols as he sought to interpret the reasons for a manifestation of the sacred time and space secular . These investigations have led to confront elements from traditions and places extremely varied with each other. In this sense it can be viewed with Max Mller as a pioneer of comparative religion. Emile Durkheim , French sociologist of the early twentieth century, defined religion as "a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite into one moral community called a Church all those who adhere to . For Durkheim, religion is merely the collective expression of commitment to the social. What is sacred in the religious is nothing but an expression of society itself. Manifestations of the sacred embodied objects of worship, rituals and collective representations of nature are seen as the veneration of the social bond. Therefore follows that the religion of society, "the sacred principle is something that society hypostatized and transfigured." Religions monotheistic recognize only one God : Judaism , Christianity , Islam , Baha'i Religions called Abrahamic , which recognize the figure of Abraham as the first patriarch. Religions polytheistic gods recognize several, differently linked. All polytheist can be subdivided into different types: henotheism , monolatry example. The Pantheism is a philosophy that everything is God and God. The revealed religions are religions that claim to have knowledge of their divine source, either through appearances ( theophany ) or by the inspiration of prophets of texts considered of divine origin. The Abrahamic religions are one example. Religions can be based on Orthodoxy (Christianity) or orthopraxy (Judaism, Baha'i, Hinduism). The presence of certain practices or beliefs ( animism , shamanism etc. ..) can also characterize religions and allow reunification. The distinction between religious sacrificial sacrificial or not is particularly important in anthropology. Extinct religions, religions active and new religious movements. ancient religions , neo-Druidism , neo-paganism. One can also group religions by geographical areas, which are often cultural areas. Geographical proximity is often associated with loans and mutual influences, or community sources. In the Indian world, we see that Hinduism on Buddhism and Jainism , are deeply linked, as with Sikhism , influenced by Hinduism and Islam . The term Abrahamic religions means Judaism, Christianity and Islam, whose writings, that is to say, the Tanakh, the Bible and the Koran, evoke the figure of Abraham. The quality of the various religious movements mentioned here is debatable. It is difficult to obtain precise and accurate statistics on the number of adherents to various religions and nonbelievers, for several reasons: The global statistics are particularly difficult, and most consulted source has been based for more than two decades on the work of David B. Barret and his staff, particularly in regard to Christianity. This former Anglican missionary evangelist says now bemoan the lack of competition . The number of believers is greater than that of non-believers who include atheists and people reported no religion. The world average of believers would be 85.7%. Huge disparities exist between different countries. In South America , the Uruguay is the country least believer. In Africa, the entire continent would be made up of believers with a majority Muslim north and a majority of Christians in the south. The China and North Korea are among the countries with the least believers in the world. North Korea is a country where freedom of worship is the most repressed. In Europe , the figures would be more balanced across countries with percentages above 70%. Finally, countries like Afghanistan and the Vatican City would show percentages very close to 100% . Some speak of secularization or exit from religion (Gauci), others speak of religious revival (Hervieux Light). Philosophers (Monot) refute these two complementary theories whereas it is because religion limited to what they criticize that some analysts may speak of his return or his death. The religious world today is marked both by a process of secularization, even a " disenchantment of the world "or a" religious awakening, "a" hand of God , through the creation of new cults and religions, but also by the emergence of "alternative religion". These new forms are often characterized by the desire to distinguish themselves (or even break up) of a society they criticize, to adopt a specific lifestyle and goal-oriented spirit. In November 2008 the bishops of France met to discuss the subject of growing indifference to religion in secular society . Bishop Dorylas Moreau says the idea that religion should be confined to the private sphere from a confusion between morality and religion . He believes that the moral has a more personal nature, we call consciousness. He believes that religion, in turn, has a more public character, since, according to a probable etymologies of the word, it is "connected" individuals. He said the role of religious institutions is to enlighten consciences from the teachings of each religion. Freedom of religion is the right to choose and practice his religion. It also implies the right to change religion. It is sometimes distinguished from freedom of conscience which also includes the right to atheism. Being able to choose his religion is now considered a fundamental right. Respecting this right is an indicator of respect for individual freedoms. In some countries, the principles of freedom of conscience, though posters may be more or less hindered. In Malaysia , for example, freedom of religion is enshrined in the constitution, but in fact the law prohibits Muslims to abandon Islam. The term religious apostate means former Christians who have abandoned or repudiated the bonds uniting them to their former religion. These people can be non-believers or converts to another religion. In the Upper Paleolithic , the development of art forms in its wall and security raises questions about the meaning of the themes discussed in terms of beliefs . In some societies, the concept of art is inseparable from that of religion, art is in part defined by functions in religious ritual: it can take as an example the works of African art ( primitive art ). According to Henri Bergson , religious art ( sacred music , religious art , religious architecture, sacred dance ...) is not built against a secular art independent References The poet's intention is to "untie the knots which religion surrounds us." It evokes a victory against a religion "subject and trampled" by Epicurus' victory that lifts us to heaven. " Editions: Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, bilingual translation, introduction and notes by Jos Kany-Turpin, Flammarion, Paris, 1997. ( ISBN 978-2-0807-0993-6 ). This dialogue is both a general introduction to Greek philosophy to the Latin and an overview of the theories of ancient religion. Editions: Cicero , The Nature of the Gods, translation, introduction and notes by Clara Auvray-Assayas, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, coll. The wheel books, 2002 ( ISBN 978-2251339429 ). Written after his conversion in 193 and before he broke with the Church in 213, Tertullian there is a discourse of "apology", that is to say, defense or justification in the face of accusations addressed to Christians including that of irreligion, crimes against religion or impiety. He argues that not only Christians are "good citizens" and therefore they do not violate the religion, but also that the "true religion" is that they practice. Editions: Tertullian , Apology, translated by Jean-Pierre Waltzing, introduction and notes Pierre-Emmanuel Dauzat, Paris, Belles Lettres, coll. CUF Latin, 1970 ( ISBN 978-2251012780 ), Reed. 2002, coll. Classic Pocket ( ISBN 978-2251799384 ). Translation of 1914 by Jean-Pierre Waltzing on Tertullian.org. One of the first texts which spoke of "vera religio '(uncertain date between 200 and 245). The author does not say explicitly that he is a Christian but his argument on religion similar to that of Christian apologists. Editions: Minucius Felix , Octavius, translation introduction and notes by Jean Beaujeu, (1st ed. 1964), repr. Paris, Belles Lettres, CUF, 2003. ( ISBN 978-2251011165 ), a 1911 edition is available on the site Gallica BNF. In the fourth book, the author argues that without religion those who seek wisdom can not reach, and without wisdom, religion is not true religion. Editions: Lactantius , Divine Institutions IV, trans. Pierre Monat, Paris, Cerf, Christian Sources 377, 1992. Reissue of a 2010 translation of 1837: John C. Alexander Buchon, Choice of monuments of primitive Christian Church, 1837. Kessinger Publishing, 2010, 796 p. ( ISBN 978-1162416656 ) Includes the following thesis: "We believe and teach, this is the principle of humanity, that philosophy is to say the love of Wisdom is none other than the true religion. . Editions: Saint Augustine , True religion, preceded by The Life of Saint Augustine by his disciple and friend Posidonius, Via Romana, Coll. The absolute No. 1, 2010. ( ISBN 978-2-916727-82-0 ), Reading in a translation from 1864 on the site of the Abbey of St. Benedict , Latin text on Augustinus.it Books VI to X of the City of God exposes and discusses theories of ancient religion. This is an important source for knowledge of treaties Missing Varro. Publishing: Christian Sources (bilingual); St. Augustine City of God , trans. Jerphagnon Lucien (ed.), Paris, Gallimard, Pliade, 2000. ( ISBN 2-07-010694-3 ). Most of these texts are available for reading with bilingual translations of the nineteenth century Itinera Electronica , site of the UCL , and the ancient Greek and Latin Anthology of philosophical texts from antiquity to the twentieth century on the themes of religion and religions. Roman Religion and Christianity
The religion of the Church Fathers
Schools of Philosophy and Religious Communities
Medieval Theologies of Religion
Islam
Reason and revelation
The religion of Thomas Aquinas
Reforms and divisions of religion
Philosophy of Religion
Legacy of the Enlightenment
German Philosophy
Criticism atheist
Globalization of the idea of religion
"Mondialatinisation" or Western ethnocentric view?
The invention of religions in China
L'hindouisme est-il une religion ?
Le bouddhisme
Etude de la religion par les sciences humaines
. For Voltaire the Chinese know God as the Master of heaven, they follow his laws and his will without religion. China is the example of a company which has developed a purely natural or rational knowledge of God and therefore was able to produce a morality and laws without religion. This allows Voltaire to argue that religion is unnecessary but does little about China.
Anthropological Approaches
Study of the rites of the myths and symbols
Sociological Approaches
Major world religions
Concepts of categorization and designation of religions
Religions of African origin
Religions of East Asian origin
Religions of South Asian origin
Religions of Persian origin
Religions of Middle Eastern background and European
Figures and Statistics
Counting Problems
Global distribution
Statistics D. Barrett (completed) 
Importance of religion in different countries - Gallup Organization - February 2009 
Estonia (14%) 
Sweden (17%) 
Denmark (18%) 
Norway (20%) 
Czech Republic (21%) 
Azerbaijan (21%) 
Hong Kong (22%) 
France (25%) 
Mongolia (27%) 
Morocco (100%) 
Egypt (100%) 
Bangladesh (99%) 
Sri Lanka (99%) 
Indonesia (98%) 
Congo - Kinshasa (98%) 
Sierra Leone (98%) 
Malawi (98%) 
Senegal (100%) 
Djibouti (98%) Other
The issue of secularization
Religion, private matter or public
Freedom of religion
Religion and art
Bibliography
General
Essays, Philosophy
Social Science, Sociology
Greco-Roman Antiquity
Asia
Primary Sources
Latin Antiquity
Philosophy of XVIII-XX centuries
Linguistics, Sociology
Anthologies
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