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Psychoanalysis

In the definition given by Sigmund Freud , psychoanalysis is the name:

  • a process of investigation of mental processes, which are otherwise hardly accessible;
  • a method of treating neurotic disorders, based on this investigation (see psychoanalysis );
  • a series of psychological concepts acquired in this way, and merging into a new scientific discipline (cf. metapsychology ) . Initially the term was devoted psycho-analysis , and it was not replaced until 1913. Freud makes clear in the chapter "first lesson" of the book Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis : "This is not me who deserves the credit, if it is one - to have given birth to the psychoanalysis. I have not participated in its first beginnings , .

    The creed of psychoanalysts can be formulated: "Psychoanalysis is precisely to be the key man, not formulas, but in reality this man, and then the other, and then another one, because it is to "change life" .... "

    Summary

    / / Terminology Polysemy

    The term is confusing because it encompasses many meanings, both among the general public and among experts. The general public, it is common to confuse any form of psychotherapy with psychoanalysis. Among specialists, who have not distinguished by their accuracy in terminology, we distinguish the "Freudian psychoanalysis" (discussed below) and the multiple forms of psychotherapy , which often have the name of psychoanalysis. Carl Gustav Jung and his followers, for example, were keen to differentiate their practice by naming analytical psychology , to mark their differences with Freudian psychoanalysis.

    But in recent decades, some Jungians and scholars become dissidents, such as Theodor Reik and Alfred Adler , prefer to speak of Jungian psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysts members of the International Psychoanalytic Association ( International Psychoanalytical Association ) include Freudian, Kleinian followers of Melanie Klein , of Bionian followers of Wilfred Bion , the annafreudiens, followers of Anna Freud , the kohutiens followers of Heinz Kohut , etc.. Their practices and theories vary widely, but generally it is accepted that for adults, including the psychoanalytic treatment takes place on the couch at a rate of three or four (or more) weekly sessions (see psychoanalysis ).

    The profusion of theories and practices grouped under the same name forced the future patients, sometimes demanding, asking the analyst makes it clear that he consulted his membership in a particular stream or even a particular company psychoanalysis. Things are further complicated when the name "psychoanalysis" is doubled from that of "return to Freud" which usually means that whoever uses this term is Lacan (followers of Jacques Lacan , grouped themselves into numerous associations) whose practice, and some theories, depart significantly from those of Sigmund Freud. For them, meeting duration is variable, and the importance of language, meaning is paramount, and the establishment and use of transfer and that of transfer-cons are very special, very different from those that give them Kleinians among others . For Alain Mijolla , "the word now covers psychoanalysis as fallacious a label, too many different theories and practices, hence my suggestion to replace the use by the thought of Freud . .

    Some critics of the history of psychoanalysis, as Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen , say (as the psychoanalyst Andre Green), "there is not psychoanalysis," in that it does not constitute a theory whose field would be truly unified. But Borch-Jacobsen, goes even further. For him, given the nebulous theory would have led to the "Freudian thought," there would be as many as psychoanalysis of patients. And psychoanalysis, which can adapt well to everyone, at all times, and all human situations imaginable, adapt, according to this author, "to everything and anything", thus becoming, she Also, "anything and everything." Borch-Jacobsen employs, in place of psychoanalysis, the terms "Spanish apartment" or "zero theory" .

    Freudian Psychoanalysis

    The construction of the theoretical model is marked by major works from 1896, 1905, 1914, 1920 and finally 1938. The first is a writing theory: The Project for a Scientific Psychology (also called "Project"), then comes a writing clinic written by Freud and Breuer : The Studies on Hysteria and The Interpretation of Dreams which establishes the foundations of metapsychology . We can discover this progressive invention of psychoanalysis by Freud in a book containing his letters written almost daily to his doctor friend Berlin Wilhelm Fliess , and which contains also the sketch mentioned above . Note the importance of place-in one form or another, the psychological trauma in the elaborations of the model. In 1914, Freud wrote Introduction to the narcissism that foreshadows the second topography theorized in 1920 . The final text is a test of religious history but also a supplement to his theory of the Oedipus complex .

    Psychoanalysis includes two lines of thought and study:

    1. a corpus of theories from analytic experience, participating in the conceptualization of the psychic apparatus, together constituting the metapsychology (including the three principles organize psychic functioning: the prospect topical, dynamic, economic);
    2. a method of investigation of mental processes as a whole, and unconscious meanings of speech, behavior, or products of imagination (see below );

    Jacques Lacan , interpreting Freud, meanwhile isolated four fundamental concepts of psychoanalysis: the unconscious , the transfer , the repetition and instinct. It is on this basis that the psychoanalytic cure is effected.

    The psychoanalytic treatment by the method of free association. Demand for treatment often stems from psychological distress recognized by the patient. It can also be machined and built in psychoanalytic discussions "preliminary." Freud said that if psychoanalysis is "a method of treating neurotic disorders", his ultimate goal is not to "cure" by abrading the symptom, but to achieve "recovery of his faculties to act, think and enjoy life. " The psychoanalytic psychotherapy is an application of psychoanalysis, which is closer to a treatment in the usual sense of the word.

    The couch used by Freud.

    Generally speaking, psychoanalysis is part of the body of knowledge and practices whose theoretical-clinical approach is called orientation psychodynamic , like other theories, like those of Pierre Janet , then Carl Gustav Jung , Alfred Adler , etc.. Freudian psychoanalysis has theorized a psychological conception of the conflict dynamics of mental life, based on a dualistic vision. The Freudian perspective has to consider the symptom in its dynamics and its own psychological significance. In the first Freudian model ( first topography ) is the economy of the unconscious desire that is considered the engine of psychic processes: repression , censorship , compromise between desire and forbidden, and so on. It is from the clinic of neurosis that psychoanalytic theory and praxis could be extended to other psychiatric disorders, the borderline cases, psychoses who have generally required substantial modifications of the original framework.

    The psychoanalyst

    Main article: Psychoanalyst.

    The formation of the psychoanalyst, defined by Freud and as recommended by the various companies psychoanalysis following the rules laid down by the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute , is generally based on an analysis of teaching (the future psychoanalyst is itself analysis), which may follow one or two controlled psychoanalysis: while driving an analytic treatment, the psychoanalyst in training is supervised by a training analyst, to learn, in particular, observe the movements of the transfer , and especially to recognize and analyze the cons-transfer to better understand the dynamics of the cure.

    The title of psychoanalyst is not protected by any state or by universities, but it is issued by national psychoanalytic associations and / or regional or non-members of the International Psychoanalytical Association. The future patient will be well informed on the membership or not its future analyst at one of the recognized associations prior to bringing psychoanalysis .

    History

    Main article: History of Psychoanalysis.

    The term psychoanalysis appears for the first time, French 30 March 1896 , but only on May 15 of that year it is published in German. So that Ernest Jones said: "Both items were shipped the same day"

    Freud's time

    The founding event of what will become of psychoanalysis was Freud's participation in the work of neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot on hysteria (malfunction of the body without physiological origin), including the use of hypnosis. Psychoanalysis itself has indeed been preceded by two phases in the research of Freud:

    1. the cathartic method, which owes much to Joseph Breuer , who is to put the patient under hypnosis to uncover the traumatic origin of hysterical symptoms. Symptoms, Freud tells us, disappear when the patient once again awakened by what he found hypnosis. Remembering and re updating traumatic emotional scenes then lead to healing. This method is that Anna O. was also called "talking cure". But hypnosis "is an uncertain process and has something mystical" evil clear of mesmerism which is still associated it only temporarily reduces conversion hysteria;
    2. free association, which aims to engage in catharsis without hypnosis. Freud then seeks to promote the recall by asking the patient to freely say what comes to mind , and working on the chains of associations. "painful and exhausting process in the long run," he observes in Five Lessons on psychoanalysis, "which could emerge as a definitive technique.

    This enables better understanding of the various assessments of Freud to the birth of psychoanalysis:

    • in 1909, in Five Lessons: "This is not me who deserves the credit if it is one-of-giving birth to psychoanalysis. I have not participated in its first beginnings;
    • in 1916, in Introduction to psychoanalysis: "I am right in saying that psychoanalysis itself dates only from the day we gave up resorting to hypnosis";
    • in 1923, in Essays of psychoanalysis: "The cathartic method is the immediate precursor of psychoanalysis. It still contains the method itself as its core. "

    Freud thus practiced hypnosis for some time. With Joseph Breuer, they forsake the thesis Janet a constitutional weakness to address the reality of hysteria : thus appear in 1895 Studies on hysteria.

    But Freud soon will stand out as Breuer's, assuming the importance of sexual dynamics in the development of psychopathology. The hysteria but also the other neuroses are then designed as a consequence of sexual trauma.

    Early adopters of psychoanalysis contribute to the first intense debate and numerous as they assert their own ideas. And Carl Gustav Jung , Sandor Ferenczi , and others are heard, read, commented on by Freud critical positions which seem different from the principles he believes provided by previous work. This did not stop to evolve and integrate some of these views in the body of theory, eg the passage of the first topic on the second topic , which gives more room for aggressive impulses and death. In 1914, Freud published his work on narcissism that foreshadowed the changes that take place in the second topography. For some ( Andre Green and Ren Roussillon among others), this 1914 text is a topic in itself, since they speak of three topical. Around 1920, Freud's theory is undergoing extensive remodeling in the 'Beyond the Pleasure Principle that without abandoning the previous theories show both the limits and exceeding them. Please note that many comments and / or criticisms of psychoanalysis that takes into account the work of the first topic, even the pre-psychoanalytic Freud and Breuer. The work of Karl Popper are an illustration.

    The Nazis, like some psychotherapists, Jung for example, saw psychoanalysis as a "Jewish science". The consequence has been that many Jewish psychoanalysts had to leave Nazi Germany and Austria to emigrate elsewhere in Europe , South America and the United States in particular. During the invasion of Austria by the Nazis in 1938, Anna Freud was arrested by the Gestapo and released the same evening, which Freud decides to leave Vienna and moved to London.

    After Freud

    Freud leaves open many questions. According to the authors, will focus on different approaches in an international debate that continues as we enter the twenty-first century.

    Most of these internal debates in psychoanalysis concerns the enrichment of Freudian concepts, while maintaining the rigor on key principles, scientific exploration into this field of study, and ethical practice of cure.

    The debate is external to psychoanalysis led by supporters of a scientific conception: psychological phenomena are accessible to experimentation, which alone can guide and validate their theoretical models of psychology to neurophysiology. This position therefore makes the road opposite to that of Freud. This did not exclude the possibility of giving a physiological basis for his research, but as he said in response to a letter addressed to him Rozensweig he ruled out any need for psychoanalysis to submit experimental procedures : he writes in 1895, a year after the work of Sigmund Exner on the same subject, the sketch for a Scientific Psychology in which he set up the notions of "quantity nervous" (Qn) of "spawning route", and " inhibition ", which will determine later, psychologically, they discharge or conversion. Yet little is known at the time the phenomena of nerve transmission and synaptic relations between neurons , neurons that Freud sees as simple tanks and vehicles of a nervous energy that comes from an external source (either organic or sensory). The outline was not followed (will not be published during his lifetime, but sent his friend Fliess, and found by chance at a bookseller after his death), Freud and finding no satisfactory explanation for psychological problems without lesions anatomicophysiological, turns to a purely psychological phenomena of psychopathology.

    That is why Freud called his approach " metapsychology "to mark the difference, with both the spiritual and philosophical conception of the psychology of the time with characterological psychology and psychophysiological which relied on measures of reaction time , for example, and reflexes.

    Through psychoanalysis, at least in the Anglo-Saxon and Nordic countries, a serious crisis and deep questioning, although he complains do not take sufficient account of the criticism. The difficulty of assessing the effectiveness of the analytical treatment of a quantitative point of view remains problematic, although a report on the evaluation of psychotherapy published by INSERM, assigns a lesser effectiveness of psychodynamic therapies in most of the disorders studied.

    However, the unconscious , theories of infantile sexuality are still, for Freud and psychoanalysis, a subject of "narcissistic injury" in an era marked by the illusion of "everything manageable" in terms of emotions and life psychic. However, the primacy of the unconscious and sexuality, as envisaged in the psychoanalytic perspective, has always been, if not discussed, or controversies, or disputes of a different nature.

    Method of exploration of the psyche

    Psychoanalysis is not a theoretical whole, a metapsychology is also a method of exploring the human psyche. This method can be applied to study works of art, philosophies , etc.. The exploration of the psyche it, is through various techniques:

    • The interpretation of dreams that are, according to Freud, "the royal road to knowledge of the unconscious." In the course of therapy, dream analysis allows to discover such mechanisms work to symbolize the psyche.
    • The surname of the subject, place of birth and current events.
    • The analysis of acts of daily life:
      • The lapses , oversights, neglect: these missteps reflect a psychic conflict that involves a conscious and another, pre-conscious or unconscious, which disturbs the normal operation of the first. The observation of these contradictory tendencies can make plausible the hypothesis of the unconscious.

    Childhood memories and screen memories

    When analyzing a meeting for the first time an analyst, perhaps he himself described his anguish at first, her symptoms and inhibitions, it also speaks to the circumstances of his life but he soon begins to recall his memories childhood. Yet Freud gave some of those memories more accurate a name, that of "screen memories". Suffice it to say that these memories are not to be taken at face value, but that, cons, they are taken literally, that is to say they are quite decipher the text as a dream. A screen memory should be interpreted, because behind seemingly trivial events, without interest, lie the most important events of the subject's life, what can be described as traumatic events, provided of course to give this its exact scope qualifier.

    Freud devoted to these two texts screen memories, one dated 1899, "On the screen memories," the second part of the psychopathology of everyday life, is titled "childhood memories and screen memories. The title itself is interesting because it posits that all childhood memories are therefore not of screen memories.

    He writes, in this last text: "I left this odd fact that early childhood memories of a person most often relate to things indifferent and secondary schools, while he remains in the memories of adults trace (I mean in general, not absolute) strong impressions and emotional this time. " Everything has fallen into the amnesia of early childhood, all but a few memories but more often indifferent incongruous.

    One example of these screen memories Freud says shows how much he was a Lacanian avant la lettre, and that in the deciphering of these small formations of the unconscious, he always proceeded as a linguist, whereas the language as a science had not yet been invented. One man, one of his analysands, who have had many disappointments in her love life, was the eldest of nine children, and he was fifteen years old when his last sister was born. Yet he seemed not keep any memory of seeing his mother pregnant, while during the fifteen years it should have at least hit him. Only a screen memory enabled him to realize: He "finally remember that at the age of eleven or twelve years he one day saw his mother hastily undo her skirt in front of a mirror ... It complements the memory by saying that day his mother had returned and had taken pains felt unexpected. However, the unlacing (Aufbinden) of the skirt appears in this case as a screen memory for delivery (Entbindung). This is a "verbal bridge" that we will find use in other cases. " In any case, this bridge verbal Aufbinden implies Entbindung which can overcome this screen unlacing of the skirt into the world of one of his many brothers and sisters.

    Among these childhood memories analyzed by Freud, that of Goethe is remarkable .

    The principle of psychic determinism

    The hypnosis as using Joseph Breuer and Jean-Martin Charcot was a method that could not meet Freud for a time, not suitable for all patients and not going along with the long-term work on the transfer. To replace, Sigmund Freud used a principle he attributes to Jung , principle that an idea that comes to mind can be arbitrary and must therefore have a history determined. In Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis, he said, and his thoughts:

    "You will notice already that the psychoanalyst is distinguished by its belief in the determinism of psychic life. This has, in his view, nothing arbitrary or fortuitous, he imagines a particular case where, usually, no idea to expect. "

    The dream is not the scene of hallucinatory images meaningless, the slip is not a mere accident of no consequence, no more than an idea does not cross the mind for no apparent reason. The idea is deformed more or less strong before reaching the consciousness , but still retains, by assumption, a certain "likeness" with what it is the manifestation. All these phenomena may therefore be a method of interpretation that reveals the existence of non-conscious tendencies, repressed by the individual. No doubt we see it in the affirmation of the principle concern of Freud's psychoanalysis raise the status of science. "We deny the right of all sides to accept a psychological unconscious and work scientifically with this hypothesis, protests there in 1915 (in Metapsychology ). But the principle of determinism, which is required of any experimental science, is "faith" of the psychoanalyst: no longer in the psychic world than in the physical world, a phenomenon can not occur without cause.

    "Even more: it often involves multiple causes, a multiple motivation to account for psychic phenomena, whereas usually it is satisfied with a single cause for every psychological phenomenon. (Op. cit) "

    Interpretation of Dreams

    For Freud, psychic act has a meaning, the dream must therefore have a meaning open to interpretation. The method of interpretation will transpose the method for the treatment of psychiatric disorders, because he believes there are similarities between them and the dream life. As a symptom, consciousness perceives ideas that are alien and it ignores the origin. The method is based on the same principle of psychic determinism, the patient freely setting a series of ideas related to his dream is to be given it interprets itself.

    Freud's theory about dreams is that it is the realization of a wish. The dream of the adult in this sense is identical to the dream of the child, but it is distorted by the many prohibitions that result from the education and culture.

    The dream consists of the manifest content and latent content. The dream work is the psychological mechanisms that distort the latent content, the analytical work is to interpret the manifest content to find the hidden meaning. This interpretation thus requires the work of dream analysis.

    Types of dreams

    In his first theoretical Freud distinguished three types of dreams according to the relation of content:

    • simple dreams and not veiled, that is to say, manifest and latent content is the same: childhood dreams, wish-fulfillment dream (accommodation);
    • coherent dreams but apparently unmotivated;
    • incoherent dreams, absurd dreams are often the longest.

    Mechanisms of dream

    Freud distinguishes several psychological mechanisms:

    • Dramatization: The production of the dream lies in a narrative (story, fable, mythology) or transformation of a thought in a situation;
    • Figuration: any dream is metaphorical (figurative), as visual sensations accompanied by emotions or as a puzzle;
    • Condensation: the dream is only one element of the manifest content of a multiplicity of elements (images, representation ...) the latent content. Conversely, only one element of the latent content may be represented by several elements of the manifest content. It is a work of "compression" in which Freud said he is different from a simple summary. For example, a person may suddenly assume the appearance of another and take the character of a third;
    • Displacement: The process by which a secondary treatment or an insignificant detail in the narrative acquires a value in the interpretation center. There is no correspondence between the psychic intensity of a given element of the manifest content and latent content of the elements of which it is associated.

    Psychopathology of everyday life

    Freud comes in 1905, to apply the principle of psychic determinism to explain the most common behaviors. From the disease, based on the theories that inspired her neurosis , Freud analyzes the behaviors that fall within the common analysis is the pathological to normal.

    If the dream is a special process reserved for part of the experience alone, the psychopathology of everyday life says 'power' interpretation of psychoanalysis as to life everyday. Les erreurs de langage , les , les mots d'esprit deviennent des rvlateurs de tendances psychiques inconscientes chez tout un chacun.

    p> The book published in 1905 that Freud is not, however, that such application of the theoretical model of psychoanalysis to interpret, because if this model will be revised many times - it still is - the first psychoanalytic models of mind appear human even before 1900.

    With dream interpretation and the book on the report of jokes to the unconscious, the psychopathology of everyday life reveals the structure of the unconscious as a language, what Lacan resumed his teaching.

    Concepts

    Main article: Metapsychology.

    Psychoanalysis is an interpretation of certain human acts in terms psychic - who convey the message. Some actions are perceived as "involuntary" and yet are not reflexes , some of which originates from a sequence of the brain that are, for example slip , the missteps , or symptoms without physical cause ( hysteria , as distinct from psychosomatic illnesses ). These apparent errors, these symptoms, missteps, are a way of successful acts since they are a compromise that reveal the underlying conflict or are the satisfaction of desire. Thus the dream allows the sleeper to be making their wishes and may continue to sleep without being awakened by a frustration.

    Intersection of two topical Freudian.

    Psychoanalysis models the psychic apparatus by "topical", indicating "places", not literally, but structured systems that fit together in a dynamic. Freud identified a large number of concepts "metapsychological" to achieve psychic apparatus that describe this complex and we know we still have only partial insights.

    By 1895, Freud develops a first topography : that which distinguishes the conscious, the preconscious (ie, memory access), and the unconscious, including repressed memories, inaccessible.

    In 1920, to resolve many issues that emerge in the treatments, Freud created a second topic : it distinguishes That , unconscious instinctual pole of personality, ego and superego. The ego must ensure adaptation to reality, where the id is not concerned with external constraints. But the ego is also responsible for numerous "defenses" pathological. The superego is, among other things, the internalization of parental prohibited. Freud saw the emergence of the superego to be late, but psychoanalysts like Melanie Klein thought the superego to exist very early in children. The superego is formed as the pole of self-aggression, self-criticism.

    But the engine that energizes all the apparatus, it is the drive , as claimed by Lacan to the letter by repeating the word Freud's Trieb (drive), wrongly translated in the first translations by instinct. Let us remember that it originates in the id, pure desire without integration into the personality and without practical consideration, and will be built, rebuilt, by the ego. Under pressure from the superego, the ego may refouler this drive, making it unconscious and neurotic.

    The drive has several forms: self-preservation instinct -as-hunger, sex drive , which can be sublimated, or could go see to be seen, etc. .- and death drive , this tendency to self-annihilation that First World War revealed to Freud.

    The theory of the unconscious

    There is an unconscious psychological thinking and hidden desire, and different thoughts and conscious.

    In Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis, Freud hypothesized that hysteria (or transference neurosis) is the result of the impossibility for a person to repress completely unbearable desire that comes to consciousness and which produces a substitute, called symptoms , keeping the emotions of embarrassment related to the desire of consciousness rejected.

    However, this repression raises two issues crucial to the psychoanalytic interpretation:

    1. What is the nature of desire pushed out of consciousness?
    2. What is the nature of repression? How does it operate?

    Origin and nature of the drives

    Main article: Pulsion.

    The dream would then update the psychic mechanisms that reflect a latent content into manifest content to consciousness, manifest content of the fruit of a dream, that is to say the compromise between desire and forbidden. These mechanisms assume that the mind is excited by various stimuli, whose source is physical but the mental representation is: is the drive. In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, Freud explains that this is a limited concept lies between the psychic and somatic. Exactly how an impulse is she mentally?

    In fact, an impulse is represented by a representation and affect, respectively, the so-called ideational representative and the representative-affect. Most of the Freudian theories of the drive is developed in Instincts and their vicissitudes The introduction to narcissism

    Is a text that represents a turning point for psychoanalysis. It contains the seeds of profound changes in the second topography. Besides the descriptive aspect of the phenomenon found in the narcissistic choice of love, the psychology of women and its role in psychosis, it challenges the first and radical Freudian duality: sexual impulses impulses of self-cons. The I may be the subject of sex drive investment and not just a kind of regulator which imposes a psychological work (dreams, compromise, symptoms) on behalf of conservation . The dualism of Freud is reinstated 1920 when introduced a division between Eros and death instinct (Freud did not name it Thanatos, like other psychoanalysts have done). The first topical Eros includes sexual drive and self-preservation, while the death instinct is the innate tendency towards lower voltages ( Nirvana principle ), repetition and death .

    Neurosis

    Neurosis is the pathology of psychic conflict, whether doubt or guilt, anxiety etc.. Its uniqueness lies in the discharge which is the consequence of psychic conflict and symptoms that ensue.

    Psychoanalysis explains the rise because of the impossibility of satisfying an instinct in reality. The disease appears as a compromise: the symptom. Healing according to Freud borrows three ways:

    1. disease suppression by reflection: the patient faces and overcomes his weakness, rejects what is the result of an infantile period of the self;
    2. impulses regain their normal way of development;
    3. the sublimation , which Freud would be the best way, allows a person to invest libidinal energy and / or aggressive activities to non-sexual content or nonaggressive. It is also one of four fates instinctual.

    Several neuroses are distinguished:

    For Freud, the work culture involves sacrifices that sometimes lead to neuroses or other mental disorders. The impossibility of this renunciation, which leads to neurosis or other "solutions" (delusions, withdrawal psychic , perversion, etc..). The sex drive can be either an absolute ban nor total satisfaction. The compromise is a neurotic escape route but it can induce enormous suffering and that is what leads someone to want and to undertake psychoanalytic treatment.

    The psychosis

    For Freud, psychosis is the result of a conflict, not between internal bodies (that, my superego, ego ideal), but between that and reality. In neurosis, the intrapsychic conflict is between the id and superego requirements including the ego ideal. In psychosis, in fact we should say the psychoses, and so it is primarily the loss of reality, the latter term referring to both the "internal reality" external (perception). Freud did not himself treated psychosis , and his theories arise for most of the text of the "Schreber", which he read and interpreted on the basis of psychoanalysis. At the theoretical level, the founder of psychoanalysis remains faithful to his ideas about sexuality, especially for interpretations of President Schreber, who struggles against his homosexual desire in building a frenzy about an intimate relationship with God through rays, etc.. Freud later considered that psychosis is not accessible to psychoanalytic treatment because of a narcissistic functioning in closed circuit: the psychotic can not - he said - operating transfer to a psychoanalyst, and no cure is possible. His successors held more or less the same position, for example in the brilliant article by Victor Tausk 's influencing machine on, beautifully explains the mechanisms at work, but gives little or no track for treatment.

    It was in 1950 and following that analysts can test the treatment of psychosis: a precursor was the Swiss psychologist Margaret Sechehaye , who treated a schizophrenic patient, then it is essentially the Kleinian ( Herbert Rosenfeld , Donald Meltzer and in France, Paul-Claude Racamier and others) who have harnessed to apply psychoanalytic theories to psychotic or in the hospital or outpatient, or in combination of two or more devices in day hospitals. Harold Searles is famous and is emblematic of the treatment of schizophrenic patients by psychoanalysis. His book The effort to make the other mad has influenced generations of psychiatrists, psychologists and analysts for the impact he has had in treating psychotic.

    Borderline cases

    This term was not used by Freud. "Borderline cases" do not fall neurosis or psychosis, or even the perversion. This is a descriptive category, since no etiology common would not account for very different problems that require different limit states. The personality disorder borderline is therefore understood as a metaphor.

    The concept of state is limited, however, by itself, and criticized the definition by the DSM and ICD are outside the psychoanalytic model in the sense that they make a specific disease symptoms, and even set reified. This "naturalization" of symptoms, vision opposite to that of Freud and his successors.

    Perversion

    Main article: Perversion.

    Perversion is a corollary of the concept of infantile sexuality and its development. Under the formula, "The child is a polymorphous pervert '- in the sense that the drive is satisfied with the pleasures of organs, irrespective of the purpose and object. This is to differentiate a structured adult perversion in which pleasure body and its conditions prevail on the genitals. Perversion is yet another meaning in psychoanalysis, since it comes from sexuality, to designate a structure, a particular psychic reality. This perversion is opposed to neurosis, as the sexual repression of the motion does not occur. But this structure is not psychosis, as there is no construction of a new reality.

    Freud, from the study of sexual fetishism , comes to describe the perversion as a "solution" in the face of castration anxiety , so as a defense mechanism against anxiety neurotic type. This solution is split : part of the personality recognizes castration, the other denies it, these mechanisms (splitting and denial) belonging to the solutions psychotic. This model of perversion thus makes a separate structure, and full.

    First attempts to distinguish Freud, first hysteria and obsessional neurosis, on the other hand, neurosis and psychosis

    Almost at the same time as his "Studies on Hysteria," which were published in 1895, Freud had already discovered, with the young science of the unconscious that he was inventing, he could, from mechanisms of formation of hysterical symptoms, report also manufacture other symptoms obsessions , phobias and psychoses. So was it his first steps in this identification of the necessary structure and difference, first between hysteria and obsessional neurosis and secondly, between neurosis and psychosis. They were the first steps, but they were still crucial at least about neurosis. These mechanisms are described in two articles which are titled "psychoneuroses of defense" , 1894, and "Further Remarks on the neuropsychoses defense" , 1896.

    In the first text, he manages to describe how to form a hysterical symptom or an obsession. What the tiebreaker is the possibility or not to transform each of psychological distress in bodily pain. When this possibility does not exist or is insufficient, this suffering remains in the psychic and results and obsessions. An obsession is an idea that comes about, not that he can out of his mind, even if, moreover, she seems totally preposterous. These obsessions, Freud already gives some examples, the obsession for some women to throw it out the window, or even injure their children with a knife . You can not break free of his symptoms, hysterical, in the body, and his obsessions in the psyche, if we manage to find their way back by the work of analysis. This meaning, according to the Freudian discovery is always sexual.

    Freud, in this first stage of the development of psychoanalysis, has already discovered that in psychosis, the representation said that was inconsistent literally torn out of consciousness, rejected, barred , says Lacan, unconscious leaves no trace, and returned by cons to apply the mechanism of delirium. In the delirium of President Schreber , which had not been assumed by him in a feminine position in relation to the father would have resurfaced in the delirium of the idea of being transformed into a woman, to become the wife of God and receive thousands of children born of his mind.

    Lacan later led to the hypothesis advanced by the foreclosure of the Name of the Father , as a mechanism to psychosis.

    Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy

    Classical Psychoanalysis

    Main article: Psychoanalytic cure.

    At the root of the cure, a person suffering psychologically request help from a psychoanalyst. Once the treatment is initiated, the analysis is subjected to the fundamental rule of association. The analyst's work is to listen, interpret the latent content (meaning unconscious) from the manifest content that is to say what the patient says .

    The psychoanalytic treatment has a classical framework: a couch, an analyst (as the patient does not see) as well as basic rules such as free association (the patient is asked to say whatever comes into his head), regularity and payment of the price of the sessions, etc..

    Through the work of patient associations and the psychoanalyst's interpretative work, the analysand can revisit history, to make sense of new and updated, get rid of repetitive patterns and can say it is somehow about his story . This is done through the engine of psychoanalytic treatment is the transfer , a reprint of emotions related to their childhood relationships and projected onto the analyst. This transfer is also to analyze and interpret. For its part, the analyst will develop its cons-transfer , that is to say, his own reaction to the transfer of the patient on it.

    Classical psychoanalysis itself has evolved , in Freud's time and thereafter. At the start of these cures, Freud was sitting in front of the patient, then he sat down in order not to be seen by the patient, so that the analyst's unconscious attitudes may influence the patient.

    Freud considered as a first time, the transference as an obstacle to cure, before going to study it and use it. Similarly, the transfer-cons seemed negative at first, but it is now used by psychoanalysts as a way of understanding the patient transfer and access to its own unconscious reactions. And a cure to the other, the analyst is never "identical to itself", it evolves through the gradual discovery of his own unconscious and the deeper understanding of transport phenomena and their evolution. This explains the difficulty of comparing these treatments, either conducted by psychoanalysts is different for the same period a psychoanalyst to another.

    The dimension of the singular experience of an analytic treatment makes (according to critics of psychoanalysis like Popper, and more recently, with shades of psychoanalysts like Nicolas Georgieff) a classic scientific approach unworkable because of the impossibility of building independent evidence of operability of the unconscious at the scene of the cure: the analysand and analyst are even considered, according to Georgieff, in a relationship "copsychique" permanent unconscious, which makes impossible the identification of any evidence independent of the unconscious. But Nicolas Georgieff suggests that the new research subject of psychoanalysis, object that would lend itself, he said, an investigation by the neurosciences, is precisely this relationship "copsychique" . That would be because the analyst as the patient would be both research objects, and direct manipulation, conscious or not this object that this would cause the inability to get away from the subject ("a copsychique unconscious relationship ") to highlight corroborated evidence of its existence. Compounding this problem, suggest that this relationship copsychique unconscious, or as evidence that can happen neuroscience or independent evidence, either as new research hypothesis for psychoanalysis in the guise of scientific procedures, implies in the first case, we assume that without proof, the unmistakable character of the unconscious, through all the direct observations that can be achieved for a cure, and in the second case, we take into account the unconscious in all its Freudian specificity, that is to say strictly governed by determinism excludes any and all random nonsense. What are the difficulties, which are sometimes considered insurmountable interviews and reviewed by Nicolas Georgieff.

    During psychoanalytic treatment, the patient becomes aware of many fantasies, in particular through analysis and interpretation of the transfer.

    The transfer is then solved and the intense phase of the analysis ends. However, once this process of understanding his psyche triggered by the patient, the analysis never ceases really: it is within the normal processes of reflection of the person faced with difficulties inside or outside.

    Applied Psychoanalysis

    Psychoanalysis applied to institutions and psychotherapy is a way of working, while shifting the clinical record. The practice is one more example. It is what the speaker avoids getting into a position of duality with the "Browse". Appealing to a third party (colleague particular purpose or meaning) can not get stuck, especially with someone psychotic structure

    Analytical Psychodrama

    The psychodrama of Moreno led psychoanalysts to revise the process to create the analytical psychodrama.

    Individual analytical psychodrama

    • Individual analytical psychodrama groups a psychoanalyst playmaker, a patient and several analysts co-therapists. The playmaker did not participate in scenes. Psychodrama includes several stages:
      • The time of preparation of the scene, the discourse between patient and playmaker;
      • The time of the game, in which the bonus extras including sign language, free association, and which often includes as "transitional";
      • Time of interpretation, in which the playmaker returns to the patient what he put into the scene.
    • On Thurs psychodrama is often compared to the remains of a daytime dream.

    Analytical Psychodrama Group

    We must distinguish the psychodrama group analytic and analytic psychodrama group or a patient finds himself in a group of two or three co-therapists.

    The analytic psychodrama group is based on the same principles as the individual psychodrama. There are "couple therapy", that is to say a male therapist and a woman therapist, and patients themselves are co-therapists. There is possibly an observer, spectator out of the stakes of the scene. The group phenomena are therefore particularly relevant (as opposed to individual analytic psychodrama in which the group phenomena are ultimately restricted to the co-therapists).

    The role of patient-specific indicators, those patients able to listen to others, be sensitive to other issues that may participate in the scenes they have not built. Psychodrama group will often be referred to training.

    Psychotherapy in groups, family and couple

    Psychoanalysis and Group

    "The unconscious always happens everywhere and effects, against which humans do not cease to defend themselves, or they misinterpret, or they seek to manipulate in ways obscure to a profit assumed . "

    - Anzieu , The Group and the Unconscious

    • Part of group psychoanalysis

    As in the cure, "the subject's task is to express everything he thinks, imagines, feels the situation is to say, to" symbolize "the effects that it exerts on him. The task of the psychoanalyst is to understand as conveyance, or transfer resistance, whatever the subject seeks to serve in that position. "(P. 9)

    Moreover, "once set the rules for which the psychoanalyst is the guarantor, it was not a censor to ensure their implementation by the topic or topics, but try to understand and interpret breaches these rules, or difficulties in their implementation. "(P. 11)

    Unaware of the different group members interact "in any unconscious effect tends to occur in any field is a resistance opposing this event." (P. 15) For example, any attempt at organization, other than the minimum rules laid down under, has a defensive character. Each defense is the cons of an investment drive.

    The two basic rules of non-omission and abstinence are valid for the group. (P. 16) Participants at the meeting set out the exchanges they have had about the group outside of meetings. For its part, the host interpreter ensures compliance with instructions and allows "the transfer to grow on him and the group." It communicates "to everything he has understood. "(P. 17)

    • The group situation

    Freedom of speech puts each participant against his repressed desires and anxieties of "violating the ban in the making." (P. 16)

    "Nobody owns any room and the monitor itself provides an example by changing an occasional meeting place to another." (P. 18) "On the one hand, participants engaged in an unconscious process of transfer, manage to be developed by the work of symbolization. On the other hand, monitors emerge from their cons-transfer unconscious by an inter-work analysis, and they understand and communicate the direction of transfer by a work of interpretation. "(P. 20)

    The interpretation is possible only when the trade group suggest that its members are currently accessing this symbolization.

    • Interpretive markers
      • The small group is the subject of a transfer, in addition to existing transfers of members between them and the interpretant (Pontalis, 1963).
      • The group, like the dream is the fulfillment of a repressed desire (Anzieu, 1966).
      • The vocabulary of psycho-dynamics of groups expressing an attitude toward defensive unconscious processes of the group (Anzieu, 1971).
      • "The group illusion" is a way for the group of forming a transitional object, to dispose of all-powerful mother (Anzieu, 1971).
      • The anxiety in the group of psychotic, it is increased in non-directive groups. It gives rise to two main forms of resistance: the establishment of leadership and the division into sub-groups (Bejarano, 1972).
      • The production of an ideology by a group is the sign of the "defensive denial of a primal phantasy" (Kaes, 1971, 1973). The other way of making fantasies of the group is the myth (Kaes, 1971).
      • The group has a "mental apparatus" that combine the same instances that the individual psychic apparatus, according to operating procedures that are specific (Kaes, 1976).
      • When they gather in large group, psychoanalysts do not escape the anguish of breaking the death instinct. Moreover, they move on their colleagues and the group (institution) drives that can not be expressed in space sessions.
      • Two main layers of fantasy to interpret (excluding original fantasies):
      • Persecutory or depressive position with respect to the group experienced as all-powerful mother, accompanied by fears of losing mother and be destroyed.
      • Collective murder of the father, hunting thieves and incest taboo.
      • The group monitors carries an "analysis inter transference" or mutual control (Kaes, 1982).
    • Terms of interpretation
      • The interpretation in the current group is purely based on the here and now of the group (anxiety, defenses, unconscious desires).
      • It is addressed to the whole group (not individually).

    Psychoanalysis of Children

    Ethnopsychoanalysis

    Main article: Ethnopsychoanalysis.

    daydream

    Freud donne ce nom un scnario imagin l'tat de veille, soulignant ainsi l'analogie d'une telle rverie avec le rve. Les rves diurnes sont, comme le rve nocturne, des accomplissements de dsir. Leurs mcanismes de formation sont identiques, avec une laboration secondaire plus marque.

    Relaxation psychanalytique

    Julian de Ajuriaguerra et Michel Sapir ont chacun difi une technique de relaxation psychanalytique qui sont utilises, soit comme traitement proprement dit, soit comme prparation une cure classique.

    Influence de la psychanalyse sur d'autres disciplines

    Article dtaill : Influence de la psychanalyse.

    Au cours du XX e sicle, la psychanalyse imprgne peu peu les diffrents domaines des sciences humaines, de la mdecine, de la pdagogie, etc.

    Reviews

    Article dtaill : Critique de la psychanalyse.

    La psychanalyse a t ds son origine l'objet de vives critiques. On lui a reproch l'absence de fondements clinique, exprimental et scientifique solides et rigoureux ainsi que des incohrences thoriques ce qui a conduit Popper considrer que la psychanalyse tait une pseudo-science , et George Steiner affirmer qu'il s'agissait d'une fiction littraire. Plus rcemment, plusieurs auteurs critiques ont avanc que l'histoire de la discipline avait t dlibrment rcrite afin de dissimuler des lacunes, des faiblesses thoriques ou cliniques. De nombreux spcialistes des neurosciences estiment que la recherche qui se dveloppe dans leur domaine infirme bien des conceptions psychanalytiques comme l'inconscient, les mcanismes du rve et l'explication des psychoses, des nvroses graves et de troubles neuropsychologiques comme l'autisme (facteurs gntiques, anomalies de l'architecture crbrale, dysfonctionnements neurophysiologies et neurochimiques, altration du fonctionnement des modules crbraux encodant la ralit extrieure, dfaut de la thorie de l'esprit). La psychologie et l'imagerie crbrale fonctionnelle ont toutefois dmontr l'existence de traitements inconscients de l'information perceptive, motionnelle et smantique (phnomnes d'amorage ou priming), mais qui ne correspondent pas la notion d'inconscient labore par la psychanalyse.

    Critiques d'anciens disciples de Freud

    Carl Gustav Jung

    Du temps de Freud, Carl Gustav Jung a critiqu le dualisme pansexualiste de la psychanalyse, il lui prfrait une vision moniste avec l'ide d'une pulsion de vie unique. L'apport de Freud sur l' inconscient est mitig, car cette notion tait dj prsente en philosophie, par exemple dans l'uvre Leibnitz au XVII e sicle et amplement dbattue dans les milieux mdicaux de son poque. C'est la thorisation de l'inconscient centre sur le refoulement actif et le dterminisme psychique absolu, qui en fait l'originalit et la force. Jung reprochait Freud de s'tre cantonn l'inconscient individuel, considrant l'individu comme sujet , dont la conscience n'est cependant pas transparente elle-mme, alors que Jung s'est attach dcrire l'inconscient collectif. Alfred Adler a lui mis en vidence la revendication phallique qu'il estimait au centre des psychopathologies, ludant ainsi le complexe d'dipe. Otto Rank de son ct estimait que, plus important que le complexe d'dipe , il y avait le traumatisme de la naissance. Sandor Ferenczi prnait une relation plus chaleureuse impliquant plus le psychanalyste. Wilhelm Reich pensait que "la socit" tait trop restrictive du point de vue de la sexualit et qu'il fallait donc la "librer" pour accomplir au mieux ce qu'il appelait la fonction de l'orgasme. Toutes ces critiques donnent chacune la direction que les psychothrapies ont pris par la suite. L'accent mis sur tel ou tel aspect au dtriment du rle central du complexe d'dipe et de la sexualit infantile a donn naissance des pratiques que nous trouvons aujourd'hui sous d'autres appellations: bionergie , et autres psychothrapies reposant sur la suggestion.

    La psychanalyse comme mthode psychothrapique

    Les psychanalystes considrent que la gurison en psychanalyse doit s'apprcier partir de sa profondeur et de sa durabilit. Une gurison symptomatique (disparition d'un symptme phobique par exemple) peut-tre tout fait trompeuse dans la mesure o elle peut cacher le report de l'nergie lie au symptme sur un autre symptme . Dj dans les , Sigmund Freud notait que la persistance d'un symptme hystrique devait retenir l'intrt de l'analyste, comme pouvant rvler une srie d'associations, et finalement un ensemble complexe de reprsentations problmatiques chez le patient. Le statut de la gurison en psychanalyse est tout fait particulier. Lacan pensait que la gurison venait de "surcrot". Un rapport INSERM a tent une valuation quantitative des diffrentes approches psychothrapeutiques, notamment psychanalytique et a conclu l'absence de bnfice de cette dernire . Ces conclusions ont t vivement contestes par des psychanalystes qui estiment que la mthodologie n'est pas satisfactory and it did not do justice to the qualitative aspects inherent in any psychotherapy .

    The position of Lacan

    Jacques Lacan in what he considered an "effort to return the letter of Freud's text" (some of the concepts were at the time and such poorly translated from German and introduced cons-sense errors or shortcuts, cf. Trieb translated as "instinct" instead of "push") was mainly defended an original position where he felt that psychoanalysis was not a therapy ("it does not heal") since he considered rather as a hermeneutic. This position is complemented by a refusal to consider that psychoanalysis has something to say about what should be the man (rejection of moral discourse of the master). These considerations led him to question the status of the psychoanalyst as a "doctor of the soul or spiritual guide and he applied himself to this radical critique:

    "Our practice is a scam. Bluff, make people blink, dazzle them with words of which are chewed, it's still what we call the usual phony ... From the ethical point of view is untenable, our profession ... It 's question is whether or not Freud was a historical event. I think he missed his shot. It's like me in a very short time, everyone will fuck psychoanalysis . "

    Sometimes challenged by some psychoanalysts, the position of Lacan therefore refuses psychoanalysis as therapy, admitting nevertheless a "cure, moreover. The "quack" come thus presenting psychoanalysis as psychotherapy , where it is to hear what has to say about the unconscious , healing or not. Talking is not doing well, contrary to popular belief, the word of the analytic stage refers rather to the worst, or even confrontation with what the subject has always sought to flee.

    With regard to the clouding of the psychoanalytic act, Maria Pierrakos, Lacanian psychoanalyst, wrote:

    "You could say that this is indeed about to release the ties that prevent them from living. But the results of some tests is not it, after many years of seeing these links replaced by a web of words that gradually lose their original meaning to have a double, a triple, a multitude, and the subject was in a coherent world of suffering is in an alien universe where everything and anything equivalent, not to say everything and anything "

    Psychoanalysis and Ethics

    Psychoanalysis and philosophy have always maintained an ambiguous relationship. Freud already proclaimed his distrust of ideas and philosophical systems that he said constituted a vain attempt, he went on, adapting a quote from Heinrich Heine : "The philosophers are like the man who walks at night, armed with his cap and a candle, trying to fill the holes in the universe . "

    Ethics is at Heinrich Racker who perhaps best condensed what the ethics of psychoanalysis: "Psychoanalysis sharing, as a science, the ethics of science in general that the value - "good" that governs it - is the discovery of truth, his statement and defense. His commentator Leon Grinberg adds: "psychoanalysis must make conscious as" good "repressed as" evil "repressed." Racker still wonders why it punishes "good" and added: "We know the feeling of guilt creates the need for punishment. But we know less than the opposite also occurs: the need for punishment creates maintains or enhances the feeling of guilt. We feel we're being bad, and our need for punishment is removed from our consciousness the idea that we are good also. "Later he adds:

    "There is a law of nature that impels man to both love himself and unite (join) to himself ( Eros acting in favor of the ego) to love his neighbor and to unite with him (Eros acting for objects, prompting him to identify with them). And this law pushes, finally, to fight with the force (Eros) Thanatos cons ... Eros, particularly as road shows and end:
    terms instinctual, sexual union;
    in terms of feelings, love;
    mentally, knowledge, which is also the union between subject and object;
    and the spiritual, volitional, ethical or whatever name you want to give the specifically human plane, the union between knowledge of the laws of nature and what man does this knowledge to become in law of our will and our work . "

    Psychoanalysis, institution, and the State

    Recent discussions have taken place in various countries, among them France and the United Kingdom , about a possible state control on the training of psychoanalysts, whose discipline would be considered as other forms of psychotherapy. The psychoanalytic community has reacted very strongly against these proposals, arguing on one hand the specificity of psychoanalysis, on the other hand, the necessary independence of the discipline, which it has been proven.

    Thus, for Appeal of 17 June 1997 of Ren Major , the States General of Psychoanalysis were held from July 8 to 11, 2000 in the auditorium of the Sorbonne in Paris , it had collected more than 1200 psychoanalysts thirty-four countries , and guests, including Jacques Derrida and Armando Uribe.

    These Estates-General led to a "Declaration on the specificity of psychoanalysis" , claiming initially "the autonomy of their discipline in relation to all forms of psychotherapy that are practiced today," then "their independence from government and a state regulation whatsoever, even through so-called interpersonal psychotherapy.

    On the other hand, the States General advocated the creation of an Institute of Advanced Studies in Psychoanalysis, a structure that would be semi-private semi-public . On this occasion, psychoanalysts notaient whereas if, "for thirty years, psychoanalysis has taken place at university, she did not acquire its rightful place really (...) The level institutions such as the College de France and the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales , have, for their part, not yet recognized psychoanalysis as a discipline to be included as such in their programs. Only the International College of Philosophy , established in 1983, was able to do so gradually, in dedicating one of its intersections .

    Psychoanalysts gathered there insisted on affirming the dual nature of psychoanalysis, both directed to the individual subject and its treatment, and to the entire field of social sciences , in particular the analysis of the language , but also the history of religions , the sociology , the law , the political science , the philosophy , the philology and linguistics , the aesthetics and art history .

    New Estates General were held in Rio de Janeiro in 2003 .

    In fiction

    The number of works of fiction, referring to psychoanalysis beyond its importance in any census. Or similar concepts such as Freudian repression, the Oedipus complex, the act failed, the unconscious, neurosis, etc.., Have long become commonplaces of the literature , the cinema and television series. In turn, these works have helped to institutionalize practices and Freudian theories.

    These include:

    • Alfred Hitchcock , impressed by Freud's theories, has used Freudian repression as outcome in two of his films:
      • The House of Dr. Edwardes (Spellbound), whose approach of psychiatry is now seen as naive, and is generally accepted that for his dream scene, designed by Salvador Dali. In his time, the film was a huge success and helped to bring psychoanalysis into popular culture.
      • No Marnie (Marnie). Unlike the previous, this film marks the public disaffection for Hitchcock because, they say, the Scottish accent of Sean Connery and a soundtrack too syrupy.
    • The films of Woody Allen often contain a scene analysis, or references to psychoanalysis. The filmmaker himself has been analyzed for over thirty years.
    • Batya Gur , "The Saturday Morning Murder," Paperback Edition, Coll. Detectives, No. 14540, 2001. ( ISBN 2-253-14540-8 )

    References

    1. Freud, 1923, Encyclopedia Britannica.
    2. Dictionary of Psychoanalysis, Roudinesco, Plon, 2006, p. 837.
    3. Pierre Janet, Psychoanalysis of Freud (1913), Editions L'Harmattan, 2004. ( ISBN 2747575322 )
    4. S. Freud, Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1909), Payot, 2001. ( ISBN 2-228-89408-7 )
    5. Dictionary of Psychoanalysis, Roudinesco and Plon, 2006, p. 837.
    6. J. Chazaud, Small rational vocabulary of psychoanalysis, ed. Privat, 1988. ( ISBN 2708919733 )
    7. Francis Pasche , From Freud, Ed. Payot, Coll. Humanities, 1968.
    8. Etchegoyen Horacio R. , Fundamentals of psychoanalytic technique, Widlcher Daniel and Jacques-Alain Miller (Preface), Ed. Hermann, 2005. ( ISBN 2-7056-6517-X )
    9. Interview with Alain de Mijolla , in The Point, Occasional Papers on Freud, No. 4, October-novemre 2009.
    10. Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen. "The record Freud. Survey the history of psychoanalysis." Edit: The troublemakers to think in circles "
    11. S. Freud & J. Breuer, Studies on Hysteria (1895), PUF, 2002. ( ISBN 2-13-053069-9 )
    12. S. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams (1899), PUF, 2005. ( ISBN 2-13-052950-X )
    13. S. Freud, Metapsychology (1915), Ed. Gallimard Folio, 1986. ( ISBN 2-07-032340-4 )
    14. Sigmund Freud: Letters to Wilhelm Fliess 1887-1904, PUF, 2006. ( ISBN 2-13-054995-0 )
    15. S. Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Principle "(1920), Essays in psychoanalysis, pocket-Payot, 2004. ( ISBN 2-228-89399-4 )
    16. S. Freud, Moses and Monotheism (1939), Moses and Monotheism, trans. Pocket Gallimard, 1993. ( ISBN 2-07-032741-8 )
    17. List of associations depending on the API
    18. ( Ernest Jones , "The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud" (1953), PUF, Paris, 1958, p. 270) through psychoanalysis.
    19. Berchre, Epistemology of the Freudian legacy (end), in reviewing Ornicar?, September 1984, No. 30, p. 94-125.
    20. Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen. "The record Freud. Survey the history of psychoanalysis." The troublemakers of thinking in circles "
    21. Untie, loosen
    22. Giving birth to a child
    23. See also

      Bibliography

      Works by Freud and his contemporaries


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