Protestant Reformation

Initiated from the XV ^century and culminating in the ^sixteenth century , the Protestant Reformation was less a desire to return to the roots of Christianity to a need to consider religion and social life in another way. It reflects the anguish of souls ^Origins

Many factors

Many factors are involved . Historians have long thought that the vices of the clergy were the main cause of the Reformation: the riot of some priests and monks who live openly in concubinage , are enriched with the money of the faithful ... These abuses are not really the causes of the Reformation, the Catholic Church has indeed constantly sought to remedy. Moreover, this thesis is somewhat favorable to the Catholic Church in that it delegitimize the Protestant Reformation as a reaction against temporal problems (the depravity of the clergy, indulgences) by hiding the main concern of the people and spiritual Protestant reformers. The councils of the fifteenth ^century can not take effective solution as the pope's authority is weakened. In fact, the faithful do not blame the clergy to live but badly hurt believe .
Indeed, the Church responds poorly to the anguish of the faithful. Since the fourteenth ^century and the great plague, the faithful live in fear of hello. Artistic themes of the time, dance macabre painted in churches, books millenarian were witnesses . The trial against witches are multiplying from the late fifteenth ^century. The fear of death and the hell has resulted in the development of Marian devotion, saints, relics and practice of indulgences. The goal is to win his paradise on earth even at the cost of a stay in purgatory . In the late fifteenth ^century, indulgences are a way of becoming more popular to reduce the number of years spent by a soul in purgatory after death. Thus, the Elector of Saxony, Frederick the Wise , the future protector of Luther, has 17,443 relics, supposedly to spare him 128 000 years of purgatory . But indulgences are then sold: as soon as gold falls into the bowl, the soul escapes from purgatory. The confusion of the spiritual and material emphasizes the phenomena of desecration of the time . Increasingly, the person confesses not prompted by the consciousness of its weakness but out of fear of punishment after death.

Some humanists contribute to the dissemination of new ideas. They develop the exegesis biblical. The original text of the Bible is thus restored. The birth of the printing press allows the dissemination of editions of Bibles in the vernacular. This direct contact to the reader accustomed to having a personal relationship with the sacred texts and to think for themselves on their meaning .

From the mid-fifteenth ^century, the purchasing power is dwindling. So watch the noble side of the vast land of the Church, or more often 20 to 30% of arable land . Moreover, the Church continues to condemn bank profits, the monetary profit in its ecclesiastical courts even though its positions have been somewhat relaxed. Bankers are especially numerous in southern Germany. Nobles and bankers are less well attached to the Catholic Church .

Political factors are not absent either. The development of states is hampered by the temporal power of the Church. Increasingly, the princes seek to intervene in the selection of members of the High-clergy, bishops, abbots. Indeed, ecclesiastical positions are linked to profits. He who controls the election of the prelate, indirectly controls the benefit . The universal authority of the pope, declared by Gregory VII since 1075 is facing the growing authority of the sovereign. The Pope can raise taxes regular or exceptional in any Western country. Kings protest against release of more money from their kingdom, money they have the greatest need for their wars or to consolidate their power. Thus in England, taxes collected for profits are vacant in an amount five times more numerous than the income of the King . The pope also enacts bubbles, laws valid throughout Christendom. It can raise troops through bubbles Crusades, however, less acted upon. The sovereign claim control of religious orders, the absolute right to legislate in their states to levy taxes or troops and do justice .

But what most weakens the Catholic Church is the loss of sacredness. The faithful son to see too many priests become priests, clerics too rich at the expense of the laity, too many bishops living like lords .

Attempts at internal reform and precursors of the Reformation

The earliest precursor of the Reformation of English John Wyclif. Through his early work shows through the idea that God exercises through the pope, his interest in the property earthly kings are therefore accountable to the pope. According to him, the true Church is the Church of Christians, members of the hierarchy and the pope himself. but no one is superior to another. Pope leads but no more than a Christian saint. This new statement thus challenges the role of hierarchy in the Church. It translates the Vulgate Old English and recognizes the secular authorities the right to collect the ecclesiastical revenues in 1381, which shocked many members of the clergy English very attached to their monetary prerogatives. He believes that the Scriptures must be the only source of faith even if he thinks that the church fathers can help their interpretation. He was sentenced in 1376 and 1379. His old enemy William Courtenay, who became Archbishop of Canterbury , convened in London three synods in 1392, which formally condemn Wyclif and his followers. He died alone, but is buried in consecrated ground. In 1427, the Council of Constance in 1415 and Pope Martin V renewed the condemnation of his writings. The exhumation of his remains is then ordered and, in 1428, his bones were burned and thrown into the Thames in north London. To his followers, the Lollards push the people to revolt against the bishops who enrich themselves through their religious position. Henry IV of England rages against what he regards as a heresy and a major infringement of his absolute power . Wyclif's ideas do not win success outside of England.

In Bohemia and Moravia, Huss opposed the corrupt wealth to evangelical poverty. For him, the Gospel is the only infallible and sufficient rule of faith, and every man has the right to study for its own account. This is big news because the Catholic Church promotes little personal reading of sacred texts, in contrast to Jews and Muslims at the same time .

The devotio moderna is a spiritual movement born in the fourteenth ^century in the Netherlands, and led by brothers and sisters of the Evangelical Life tries to take into account the aspirations of the faithful. It is a method of personal piety and individual made the imitation of Jesus Christ, a self-examination and prayer . Moreover the idea of reform through many circles in many states. In Germany, Maximilian wants to use the idea of reform against the Holy Father to carry around her national unity. After spreading the Series complaints against Rome Germanic Nation, it loads the humanist Jacques Amiot to gather comments on the German Church and the Catholic clergy, . Most religious orders seek their part to restore the monastic rules in their original hardness. Savonarola manages to take power in Florence .

The Reformation Lutheran

The Lutheran Reformation was introduced by the monk Augustine Martin Luther. He lives in constant fear of his era. Since joining the monastery, Luther seeks by all means to acquire the certainty of his salvation. But neither devotion nor fasts, nor the spiritual exercises, nor theology at Luther DISCLAIM appeasement and the certainty of his salvation. In 1512 he finally found the answer to his questions, he wrote this time: "just follow the law. God gives his infinite justice is a gift " . God's goodness, his love, generosity is the cornerstone of Christian doctrine. The Christian responds to the love of God through faith. All the precepts are found only in Scripture. And it is by following God's law shows that the Christian faith.

Chronology of the first reform

• 1507 William Brionnet Meaux welcomes Jacques Lefevre d'Etaples he attended since 1505
• 1516 Ulrich Zwingli met Erasmus and the printer Froben in Basel.
• 1517 Martin Luther publishes his 95 theses.
• 1521 Theses of Martin Luther were condemned by the Sorbonne.
• 1522 Publications of Ulrich Zwingli made him known outside of Zurich.
• 1523 Zurich is the first Swiss canton to pass the reform, with Zwingli
• 1524 Strasbourg moves to reform (Alsace is so distinct from France)
• 1529 Basel passes reform. Glarus, Bern, Biel, Schaffhausen, St. Gallen Mulhouse and follow.
• 1530 Meaux became the first Protestant church organized in France
• 1531 The Swiss cantons of Zurich Catholic attack and beat them. Zwingli is killed.
• 1532 The Synod of Chanforan , the Waldensian Church merged with the Reformed churches
• 1532 John Calvin , converted in 1531, began preaching in Paris
• 1536 Calvin published in Basel Institution of the Christian religion, without mention of predestination
• 1536 Calvin moved to Geneva where the Reformation has been adopted.
• 1541 Calvin, banished from Geneva in 1538, returned and installed a Calvinist republic in Town
• 1545 Massacre of 3,000 Vaudois du Luberon triggers emotion and a royal commission.
• 1552 Calvin publishes From the eternal predestination of God
• 1562 Calvin publishes The congregation on the eternal election

The break with Rome

In 1515, Pope Leo X authorized a new sale of indulgences . It does not get a huge success. Luther affix the 95 theses against the indulgences on the door of the castle chapel of Wittenberg. He is indignant at the market drift of the Church. He undertook to defend its proposals on theological or indulgences that would like to argue with him. He believes that a public debate on the issue is beneficial . But Dominicans who prefer to sell indulgences disparage Luther. They denounce Luther essentially two proposals: the non-necessity of works to earn his salvation and exclusive reference to the Bible. The debate wins the universities of Europe .

On June 15, 1520, Leon condemns the ideas of Luther. The Emperor Charles V who wants the champion of papal authority is burning Luther's writings to the University of Louvain in December 1520. Luther did not want to let it go. He still thinks that public debate is necessary and makes it blow for blow in order to show its determination. This is also his determination to be the cause of the breakdown of Protestants and Catholics . The pope can not bear that his authority is challenged. It is strongly convinced that it alone embodies the truth of the Gospel and Luther speaks only in his name. Luther beautiful writing "the great writings reformers", four books which clarify his thinking, the pope did not budge. The affirmation of the sole authority of scripture does not mean that the pope is subject to this writing because only the pope can cope with changes in society. Indeed how to interpret the scriptures over time?. Martin Luther sells the Manifesto to the German nobility in a few days to forty thousand copies. It recommends reducing the number of sacraments three: baptism and communion under both species and confession. Indeed, the acts of the Apostles specify that the first Christians confessed their sins to each other. Rejection of the doctrine of transubstantiation , the assertion of Christian freedom and equality of all believers before God even if they are not all able to teach the word of God . It is estimated that between 1517 and 1520 more than 300,000 copies of Luther's writings were sold. Until 1550, it remains the most widely read author .

After being excommunicated by the pope, Luther was summoned to the Diet of Worms. He confronted two days before the meeting. He refused to disavow his work, unless convinced of error by the testimony of Sacred Scripture He is ostracized by the Empire by the Emperor Charles V. 26 May 1521, this which means that anyone has the right to seize him and deliver it to the police. He was forbidden to write and publish. This does not Luther continued to write letters and to preach his ideas helped by his followers, the most famous being Philip Melanchthon . Melanchthon published the Loci theologica in 1521, exhibiting for the first time in a systematic way, Lutheran thought with all its innovations and its break with the medieval Catholic thought .

Some social groups are more or less susceptible to modern ideas and reformists advocated by Martin Luther, father of the Protestant world. A significant proportion of Roman Catholic clergy adhere to the ideas of Luther. These are generally men who have studied humanism, or who have resided in a university itself converted to humanism. Somehow, we can say that the humanist has made obsolete the medieval scholastic theology and demonstrations that resulted from it. The Christian faith must take into account the new way of thinking. It is the merit of Luther have linked to modern Christianity at the time. The nobility headed Klaus von Falkenstein is very favorable to Luther. A number of humanists and artists (Drer, Craven) also adhering to its doctrine. In the countryside, Luther's ideas were disseminated by itinerant peddlers and traveling salesmen .

The expansion of the Reformation

Reformation and social unrest

In the Holy Roman Empire , the imperial cities are not autonomous enough to be able to choose the religion of their choice. Thomas Mnzter is a very exalted and mystical preacher intolerant. He preached from town to town and was sometimes driven by the bishop who does not want religious competition . Carlsbad Andreas is a former teacher of Luther. He encourages his students to burn their books in huge bonfires or disappeared and valuable manuscripts and learn a trade. He was the first Roman Catholic priest to marry, breaking his vows of chastity. He married a former nun, a distant relative of Hidelgarde von Binge .

The Anabaptists , largely based on doctrines of Mnzter and Carlsbad. They consider the solemn communion as a symbolic ceremony. Their rejection of all authority and all hierarchy made them the forerunners of anarchists, at least in terms of policy. The leaders of the movement are executed because they question the social hierarchy of the time .

Reform is an opportunity for some social groups to express their discontent. They give the Gospel message and a revolutionary dimension. Small noble revolt in 1522 led by Buten and Sickringen, two unscrupulous adventurers. For Luther, a religious reform should not identify with a cause economic and social . In 1522, farmers in southern Germany revolted combining socio-political claims to religious requirements. Again, Luther beg farmers not to use force. For him, the Bible can not provide any solution to the problems of civil or economic. He refuses a social revolt in the name of the Bible, expressing his social conservatism. During the war that the peasants engaged in the Southern lords Holy Roman Empire, he encouraged the nobles to punish the rebels without mercy. This earned him losing a large part of the support of the lords of the South that religious reform is synonymous with anarchy . The Lutheran Church is a body controlled by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

The organization of the Lutheran Church

Faced with the turmoil caused by the various trends of the Reformation, Luther is primarily concerned with organizing the new liturgy in German. This is the first time that people can pray throughout the other of the ceremony in their own language. This revolution did a lot for such an expansion of the German language. German mass based on reading the New Testament , the sermon, a central element of worship and song. Luther wrote a collection of sermons that pastors can use during the service. This allows for doctrinal unity. Many religious songs during the service are a powerful spring of emotion .

The pastor spends two species that become the true body and true blood of Christ , although they are bread and wine . In the Lutheran doctrine, there is no change of substance, but coexistence of two substances: the consubstantiation . Luther accepted the ordination of pastors, and the control of the temporal power of the spiritual power, guarantor of orthodoxy against the swarms of reforms and strict morality. The prince, and eminent as a Christian because of his divine mission, is a kind of bishop in charge of keeping order in the Church . It bears the title of episcopus Summus. This particular mission of princes enables them to increase their power over their subjects. The faithful adults continue to receive religious instruction, and children for which Luther wrote the Grand and Petit catechism in simple language and adapted. It also condemns many Catholic rites: the pilgrimages , worship of saints, the relics ...

Part of the Lutheran Reformation Saxony key free cities of southern Germany, Brandenburg , the Brunswick and Anhalt. In 1529, during the second Diet of Speyer , six princes and fourteen cities refuse to enforce the imperial decrees referring to the religious freedoms of princes and declare: "... we protest ...", hence the name Protestants. In 1530, the various political movements of the Reformation have their confession before the Diet met at Augsburg and the emperor. The Augsburg Confession , a profession of faith is very moderate Lutheran written by Philip Melanchthon. One presented by Zwingli asserts that the Supper is a commemoration. The reformers of Strasbourg have a third confession on behalf of cities ttrapolitaine Alsatian called Confession. The Diet of Augsburg demonstrates the impossibility of the unity of the Reformed although the Alsatians eventually adopt the Augsburg Confession .

Following the Diet of Augsburg, Charles Quint sum Protestants to submit to Rome within seven months. Concerned, they are in 1531 the League of Schmalkalden. The Emperor granted them a truce . In 1536, under the leadership of Martin Bucer , German Protestant North and South, divided on the issue of Communion, signed the Wittenberg Concord (1536), allowing Lutheranism to extend its influence South German and Swiss isolates. In 1546, when Protestants refused to recognize the Council of Trent , Charles V attacked the league. Protestants suffered a crushing defeat at Mhlberg in Saxony in 1547. The Emperor can also impose the following year the Protestant Augsburg Interim just allows them communion in both kinds and the marriage of priests . The Protestant princes then get the support of the king of France Henri II for the right for it to occupy Metz, Toul, Verdun "and other cities of the Empire do not speak German" . Charles V leaves his brother, the future Emperor Ferdinand I sign the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. Already completed the secularization of church property are Catholic but is not endorsed in the future to confiscate other property. The princes and free cities have the right to choose their religion but the subjects are forced to profess the same religion of their sovereign or emigrate, hence the adage: cujus regio, ejus religio, Tel prince, such a religion. Two-thirds of Russia have become Protestants.

After Luther's death in 1546, Lutherans s reach is Philip Melanchthon, who becomes the guide for Lutherans until his death in 1560. In 1580, the Lutherans thologienunir different states around a common confession of text. This is the Book of Concord.

Lutheranism outside Germany

Reformation Lutheran beyond the German borders. Cultural exchanges and trade between the Scandinavian world and Germany are very important. Olaf Petersen and Lawrence, and Olaeus Laurentius Patri, trained at the University of Wittenberg began to preach the Reformation in Sweden in 1518. They publish twelve theses which are the main ideas of Luther. Swedish Catholic clergy has thirty percent of the land is discredited in Sweden. Thus the reform progresses without resistance. In 1527, the Diet accepts Swedish reform, allows the secularization of church property in favor of monarchy . The king became the supreme head of the Church. In Finland, the clergy to reform itself.

In Denmark , during the reign of Frederick I (1523-1533), preaching Lutheran develops thanks to Hans Tausen who studied at Wittenberg and Paul Helgesen . The Thirty-three articles Copenhagen / I> lay the foundations of the Reformation in 1530 even if not yet formally adopted. It was not until 1536 at the instigation of Johannes Bugenhagen , Christian III makes the Augsburg Confession of Faith occupation of Denmark. The king is the head of the Danish Church. He appoints the superintendents who replace older bishops. Reform is also preached in Iceland , where she met with strong resistance and Norway , united in Denmark from 1539. The University of Copenhagen is a center of Lutheran radiation ^{The reforms of Zwingli and Bucer}

In Zurich , Ulrich Zwingli , vicar of the city, sets January 29, 1523, the 95 theses in the presence of magistrates in the city and the vicar general of the Bishop of Constance , which the city depends on the religious. For him, baptism and the Lord's Supper are symbolic ceremonies, while followers of Luther see them as sacraments, making impossible any agreement with the Germans. The view of Zwingli gradually prevails. Zwingli gets the secularization of the monasteries in 1524 and created a school of biblical exegesis. In 1525, the magistrates of the city prohibit the Mass in the city. It is replaced by a cult very bare. A marriage tribunal is created the same year. His skills eventually spread to the whole moral and social life of citizens .

The canton of Basel also going to reform in 1529 through the work of Jean Huschin, as Glarus , Bern , Biel , Schaffhausen , Mulhouse and St. Gallen . The success of Switzerland divided Protestants into two camps ready to fight. Zwingli would create a coalition between the Swiss and German Protestants. So a small army that was defeated at Cappel in 1531 by the Catholic cantons frustrated by the economic blockade which they are subject. In western Switzerland, the Reformation wins first Neuchtel and Geneva and Vaud in 1536. After the death of Zwingli and that of CEcolampadius, Heinrich Bullinger encourages Zurich to sign with other cities in the First Helvetic Confession. In 1549, he managed to bring reforms in Zurich and Geneva. Heinrich Bullinger is a celebrity of Protestant Europe at the time by the extent of his correspondence, the dissemination of his works, hospitality it attaches to the persecuted and its role as advisor to the Anglican . He also wrote the Second Helvetic Confession , recognized in 1566 by most Reformed churches in Switzerland, and accepted in Scotland , in Hungary and Poland.

Strasbourg is an original reform under the influence of local preachers as Matthew Zell said that with success the Epistle to the Romans on the Hi; Capito , talent and a great preacher and scholar Martin Bucer passionate about the teaching of Luther. In 1524, the preachers teach the gospel in parishes of the city and the cult is simplified. He secularized the property of convents. In 1533, a synod is developing an ecclesiastical constitution a weekly assembly of the clergy with the participation of three lay people (the convent). Church discipline is entrusted to the laity or older . In 1530, Strasbourg has with the cities of Constance , Lindau and Memmingen , Confession ttrapolitaine, midway on the map Eucharistic between Luther and Zwingli. It defends the idea of piety oriented practical aspects. Strasbourg acts as a mediator between the Swiss and German Lutherans States. Finally in 1563, the Strasbourg rally at Augsburg Confession .

The Calvinist Reformation

The thought of John Calvin

John Calvin , a native of Noyon in Picardy , studied in Paris and at Orleans and Bourges, where he studied law. Won the Reformation, he had to leave France following the Case of the Placards in 1534 . In 1536, appeared in Latin in Basel the first version of his major work, which includes Institutione religio christianae then 6 chapters. A new Latin version revised 19 chapters is published in Strasbourg in 1539, followed by another edition of 25 chapters immediately translated into French in 1541, then a fourth and a fifth version in 1550 and 1554 respectively.

The absolute sovereignty of God is proclaimed. Calvin tries to see the world from the perspective of God. By disobeying God, man is a slave to sin. He is rarely able to implement its will to do good. Continuing his argument, Calvin believed that faith itself comes from God, predestination.

Absent from the edition of 1532 of the Institution, barely mentioned in that of 1536, predestination has become increasingly important in subsequent editions, Calvin placed at the heart of the controversy by claiming that God chose from all eternity those who will be saved, deliberately ambiguous formula. Sparking another controversy, he opposed the doctrine of transubstantiation and believed that Christ is truly present in the assembly but not in cash, that is to say the bread and wine. The man is a fallen creature who must live in fear of God, he is filled with the feeling of his imperfection and his kind who wears evil.

Geneva, New Jerusalem

In 1536, the board of Geneva which outlawed the Mass and introduced reform in the municipality appealed to Calvin, at the instigation of Guillaume Farel. It enacts the four articles and an Instruction and confessions of faith to provide the Reformed Church in Geneva of a solid doctrinal and disciplinary frame . But the rigidity that reformers seek to impose the unhappy people who manages to convince the board of the hunt in April 1538. Calvin then lies in Strasbourg where he deals with refugees and teaches French at the High school in the city . The city of Geneva on recalls in 1541. He remained there until his death in 1564. The ecclesiastical ordinances are published in September 1541. They are the foundation for all organizations inspired by Calvin. The basic level is the local church headed by a council composed of pastors, doctors of theology and former elected deacons. The Presbytery is responsible for the moral life of the community, it prohibits gambling, drunkenness, vagrancy, dances , which seeks to preserve peace between the Christians and chose the pastor of the community among candidates.

John Calvin was in favor of the Lord's Supper weekly, but because of "the infirmity of the people" , he agrees to celebrate the only 4 times per year: Christmas , Easter , Pentecost and the first Sunday of September. It is developing a liturgy, prayers and chants Health clerics, many of the ritual elements are borrowed from Strasbourg . The services consist of sermons, hymns and psalms . He also wrote a catechism explaining the doctrine without much education.

Calvin plays an important role in religious controversies. He fought the Anabaptists. He stopped the Spanish physician and theologian Michael Servetus fled to Geneva because he had written against the trinity. The latter is burned alive in 1553. The trial of Servetus leads a discussion with Sebastian Castellon which advocates religious tolerance . Calvin controversy also with those who challenge the predestination. The strong moral pressure that Calvin has the City with the help of French refugees mainly runs popular discontent and representatives of major families of Geneva. Geneva acquired the reputation of a new Jerusalem where the identification of religion with the city is complete with persecuted Protestants in Catholic countries. It attracts exiles throughout Europe. From 1540 to 1564, nearly a thousand new citizens are admitted. The European influence of the city is due to Calvin who maintains a connection with people from almost every country in Europe for the sake of unity Protestant. He also holds the reputation of the Academy, founded in 1559. The school welcomes students quickly across the continent. It forms mainly pastoralists, but also lawyers and part of the reformed European elite . After Calvin's death in 1562, Theodore Beza behind the Reformation in the city.

The Calvinist Reformation outside Geneva

France

From 1520, the Lutheran develop in France. At the synod of Chanforan 1536, Guillaume Farel and Waldensians , rallied, getting a budget to print the Bible in the vernacular. From 1540, Protestant literature increasingly abundant accompanied by oral transmission. It spreads especially after the publication in French of the Christian institution in 1541. Calvin, Geneva, supports the religious organization and unifies the Protestants of France. From 1555, the groups are structured in meetings led by a consistory . Calvin sent dozens of missionaries to help the new organization. In 1560, there were forty. Their success is very great and end 1561, there are over six hundred and seventy Reformed churches in the kingdom. It is estimated that currently over a quarter of the kingdom's population is Protestant but became essentially Reformed confession.

The first synod of the Reformed Churches National de France held in Paris in 1559. Two important texts are written, the confession of faith which has the predestination and ecclesiastical discipline.

The second text organizes the Church "according to the model Strasbourg and Geneva . Power "belongs to the base at the local church, without any rule", providing just a biannual conference bringing together delegates from 10 to 15 parishes, a syndode annual provincial synod and a national, annual, too, but in fact rarely met. "The pastor sees the function of preaching, distributing both evangelical sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist, to represent her community at meetings. However, it must be elected, that is to say, accepted by all the faithful who can challenge him in some cases. " The aim of the synod of 1559 is to give French Protestants a doctrine as the conflict with Catholics hardens. The confession of faith is called from the 1571 Confession of La Rochelle , in a synod where some of theses Calvin will not be accepted.

French Protestantism is fought by Francis I and his son Henry II. The crackdown by Francis I is limited and sporadic. But that of Henry II is firmer. The Edict of Compiegne from 27 July 1557 request to kill without trial or any Protestant fugitive rebel. In 1559, letters of Ecouen mission to give some notables to visit the province to suppress heresy. Those who refuse as Anne de Bourg are executed . This does not reform to continue to grow. After the unexpected death of Henry II , attempted conciliation undertaken by the new chancellor Michel de l'Hospital and the Regent Catherine de Medici is a failure. In 1561, Reformed and Catholics in vain to confront their ideas at the conference of Poissy. The Edict of January 1562 which allows the existence of the Reformed Church raves partisan ambitions and passions, the source of the outbreak of the Wars of Religion in 1562 .

Scotland

The reform also affects the Scotland where it gathers the opponents of the dynasty Stuart , closely linked to the Catholic religion. In 1557, the reformers are united in a covenant, an oath to defend a traditional Scottish cause and stay together until death . After the death of Mary of Guise, regent for her daughter Mary Stuart , the Scottish Parliament adopts Scots Confession. The text presented by John Knox is Calvinist, who studied with him in Geneva. The statutes passed by the parliament set up a system presbytro-synodal. Each local church is run by a board composed of the minister (pastor), elders and deacons. Each church sends representatives to the provincial synods. At the head of the Church called Presbyterian General Assembly is composed of delegates of the Churches of provincial synods . At that time most of the Scottish nobility and much of the population have become Protestant. The marriage of Queen Mary Stuart , Lord Darnley remained with Catholic, and confession leads a rebellion of Protestant areas in 1565 . Mary eventually abdicate in 1568. His son Jacques VI definite shift to Protestantism and tends towards the establishment of an Anglican Church of type which became the Church of Scotland.

Germany and the Netherlands

In Germany, the Elector Palatine, and adheres to Calvinism makes editing in 1563, the Catechism of Heidelberg taken by most Calvinist churches . Nassau , Bremen , Anhalt , Hessen , Schleswig and Deux-Ponts in turn become Calvinists between 1576 and 1600 . The Netherlands penetrated by the early Lutheran Reformation, despite the severe repression of Charles V., then open to Calvinism. A synod held at Antwerp illegal in 1561 under the direction of Guy de Bres. It endows the Netherlands of a confession of faith. Meanwhile, residents fear that Philip does not seek to restore absolutism at the expense of old franchises and liberties. The Lords claim the free choice of religion. Before the contempt of the king, the Calvinists rose up in summer 1566. They loot and destroy churches. The repression was fierce. The Calvinists who can run away and founded churches abroad Refuge which organized in 1572 on the principle presbytro-synodal institutions . Those that Philip II had called beggars organize resistance and to come to take control of Holland and Zealand , bringing with them religious freedom . The revolt will create the United Provinces in the seventeenth ^century.

The English Reformation

At the beginning of the Reformation, Henry VIII takes a stand for Lutheran. The English monarch wants to divorce his wife Catherine of Aragon that he has a daughter after 18 years of marriage. The Pope refused a divorce. The king then proclaimed himself the supreme head of the English Church of which he is the supreme governor. Thomas More and Bishop of Rochester who refuse to recognize the king as supreme head of the English Church were executed. Paul III excommunicated the king, throws on the Interdict kingdom and preaches the crusade against the king in his eyes bigamist . In 1536, Henry VIII suppressed an uprising against him Catholic. At the same time the Protestants accuse him of not going far enough and not to a reform of dogma. In 1539, the Six Articles, voted by the Parliament maintain strict orthodoxy, transubstantiation, Communion under one kind, celibacy and chastity for priests.

Under the reign of Edward VI (1547-1553), the Church of England is moving significantly towards the Reformation. The royal injunctions, issued in July 1547 under the leadership of Edward Seymour ^, 1st Duke of Somerset , and head of the council of regency , abolish the six articles, prohibit processions, allow communion under both species and directs the reading holy texts in English . In 1549, John Dudley , Duke of Northumberland Somerset replaces the head of the regency council. It hosts the Strasbourg refugees fleeing the victory of Charles V on the German Protestants. They bring to the Reformed English experience and knowledge. Under their leadership, the Protestant English managed to push through Parliament the Book of Common Prayer which becomes mandatory in the kingdom by the Act of Uniformity (January 15, 1549). In 1552, the new Prayer Book is much protesting, the Act of Uniformity accompanying increases sanctions against priests who do not use the Prayer Book, and provides for fines for those who do not go to the Office Sunday. Finally, in April 1553, the Forty-two Articles lay Anglican doctrine: the priest becomes a mere minister of the word, he celebrates the Eucharist without reference to transubstantiation, the cult of saints, belief in purgatory, pilgrimages, relics are rejected, and the doctrine of justification by faith and predestination is Calvinist .

After the death of Edward VI, his older sister Mary, remained Catholic became queen (1553). She obtained a parliament carefully selected the abolition of all previous laws. It governs with Cardinal Pole and arrested the prelates who were Protestants believe. The announcement of her marriage to Philip , son of Charles V triggers a revolt in Kent , harshly repressed. The Catholic religion is all restored and heretics pursued. Mary died November 17, 1558.

When Elizabeth ^I , half-sister Mary came to power in 1558, the English clergy was entirely Catholic. In 1559, a new Act of Supremacy gives him the title of Supreme Head of the English Church (Supreme Head), the Book of Common Prayer is restored throughout the kingdom. The clergy must comply or resign. Elizabeth I consolidate the institutions of the Anglican Church by giving them a confession of the Thirty-Nine Articles in 1571.

Counter-Reformation Catholic

To address the problem of reform Catholicism has implemented everything he could. It was imperative that the spread of Protestantism was arrested. The Council of Trent and the Jesuits are two examples of measures implemented to stop the reform.

Council of Trent

(Similar to 1545-1563)

"The internal reorganization is mainly the work of the Council of Trent convened by Pope Paul III at the request of Charles V to deal with the Protestant Reformation. The council opened in 1545. As for Charles V , he wants the council to make a kind of vast forum where Protestants and Catholics freely discuss what the pope does not want. "The Council of Trent met with about Protestants and reaffirmed that initially more precisely the doctrines intended by Rome. The Catholicism relied heavily on the tradition as an authority covering the Bible. The reformers did not consider the past, the fathers of the Church or some councils with contempt, but affirmed that there was many contradictions and popular superstitions which distorted the message of the Gospel which necessitated a complete return the Bible, one book inspired and infallible to them.

The Council of Trent (Italy) reaffirmed the authority of popes , the priests on the laity, the tradition , councils, the merits in salvation, purgatory, prayers for the dead, the sacrifice of the Mass and ' intercession of Mary and the saints. Catholicism still kept its seven sacraments. The Council of Trent allowed to stop the expansion and even reclaim the areas already lost. The council spent the break of Western Christendom into two: Catholicism and Protestantism. For cons, the Council of Trent was not the only operation to curb Protestantism.

The Jesuits

Although the Council of Trent has really helped in the reconquest of the country apart, the Society of Jesus has helped extensively in the work. Their founder Ignatius of Loyola ( 1491 - 1556 ). It was in 1534 he founded his order, wanting to argue and be subject to the pope. In that order, discipline similar to that of the army gave way. All members must obey the superior, called "general". The Company therefore subjected to the orders of the Pope to save Catholicism. The study of the Jesuits was intended primarily to preaching and teaching. These men did not hesitate to go anywhere in the world to convert Protestants. In 1556 , the Jesuits were counted by thousands. Twenty years later they were 5000, whether in Latin America , in Asia or New France. The Jesuits have finalized the decision of the expansion of Protestantism. After this council conflicts that had characterized the ^fifteenth century and the beginning of ^XVI took a new dimension, a dimension of religion.

The immediate consequence of the wars of religion

The ^sixteenth century began in violence and blood with the conflict between France and Spain for control of Italy. The main protagonists were Francis ^I and Charles V. In 1529 the "Ladies' Peace" will mark the end of the seventh Italian war. Religious considerations will be added to these dynastic conflicts especially after the Council of Trent and the beginning of the Counter-Reformation. Religious wars have been of incomparable magnitude of extreme violence. These clashes have been around the map of Europe both in Germany , in France or the Netherlands. Here's a better description of this phenomenon.

Distribution of the phenomenon

Christian unity is no longer a utopia, conflicts of great magnitude is prepared: named wrongly or rightly "religious wars" (we were talking at the time of "troubles"), the religious dimension is variable according to the times, places and even different individuals. In France , the Netherlands and Germany 's social and religious repression is severe, civil war broke out, then with the positions of princes and magistrates, they became "religious wars". The Emperor Charles V fought the heresy with his army. Lutherans, to defend themselves, established the League Smalkade.

After the war, the Peace of Augsburg ( 1555 ) allowed the princes to choose their own religion of their subjects, according to the principle cujus regio, ejus religio (as prince, as religion).

The France meanwhile, went into convulsions just after Germany. For 36 years ( 1562 - 1598 ) the wars of religion does not practically ceased. It was during these wars that the United Provinces were created. Indeed, a revolt which mixed national sentiment, business interests and religious burst in 1566. This revolt, whose origin is remote, confronted the Calvinist reformers and partisans of the Catholic and Spanish hegemony. Behind the scenes, several alliances were formed. Sometimes, these alliances were against nature: Francis ^I , while repressing the French reformers support the German princes to interfere with Charles V , as it will alliance with the Ottomans against the same Charles Quint. The papacy dithering between France and Spain to counter the Reformation, the Protestant side Saxe fight alongside Charles V against other Protestant princes before doing an about-face and defeat in Innsbruck in 1552. All these conflicts helped to bring the Thirty Years War.

Thirty Years' War

The Thirty Years' War began in Germany in 1618 until 1648. This war began with a revolt of the Czechs due to Protestant archbishop of Prague , which forbade the reformed worship in the city where he held his power. Richelieu tried to stop the war, but failed entirely. Germany was totally devastated by this war which was the deadliest this time. The end of the war was established by the Peace of Westphalia ( 1648 ). It reaffirms the right of princes to impose their religion on their subjects. Brief religious wars were very bloody, especially the Thirty Years War.

Religious reform has had much impact on the West, as the wars of religion. It is from this period that many religions have emerged. Moreover, these religions are still present in Western society today.

Consequences farthest: freedom of conscience and a new worldview

Emile G. Leonard talked about Calvin as the founder of a new civilization, it is probably true in many respects but do not assign the work of the Reformation of the sixteenth ^century to one person or separate the movement of any which was preparing in medieval society, or movements that flourished during the Renaissance fought. One thing is certain: the evolution of societies that joined the Reformation has many contrasts with the rest of Europe, France, which was greatly influenced in the seventeenth ^century and represents a special destiny.

World disenchantment and Literacy

In their fight against the superstitions of Rome and the excesses of spirituality Anabaptist , the Lutheranism and Calvinism contribute to the disenchantment of the world. Indeed in these two theological traditions and in particular Calvinism, this is not the devil , heavenly beings or the miraculous that are ubiquitous, but God. For Christians, God is sovereign and he revealed his will in the Scriptures (the 66 books that make up the Bible ). A God Almighty helps to reassure the believer against the supernatural, the medieval fears of all kinds: enchantments, possessions, spells ... God , His attributes, His will and His commandments are known by Scripture, by using means ordinary (reading, reflection), hence the use of reason. God is not revealed by dreams, visions, trances, convulsions, or by receiving revelations beings or supernatural powers ( priests , saints , astrologers ), but by the biblical text. The measure of a man in the Protestant spirituality lies in his understanding, his ability to explain and obedience to Scripture. The capitalism is rather a sign of a weakening of this piety, hence the need for revival movement with leaders like John Wesley or Charles Finney who insist much on sanctification , the self-denial and charity.

References

Bibliography

• Jean Delumeau & Thierry Wanegffelen , Birth and affirmation of the Reformation, PUF, repr. 2008 ^(1st ed. 1973).
• William Estep: Renaissance and Reformation, Eerdmans Publishing, 1986
• mile Lonard : History of Protestantism, Press Universitaire de France, 1961
• Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, James Jacob, Margaret Jacob, Theodore Von Laue: Western Civilization, ideas, politics, and ^society, 3rd edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1989
• Michel Peronnet, the ^sixteenth century, U Hachette, 1981
• Jean Seguy: Anabaptist-Mennonite Assemblies of France, Mouton & Co, 1977
• Leonard Verduin: The Reformers and Their stepchildren, Eerdmans Publishing, 1964
• Janine Garrison: Civil War and Compromise, 1559-1598

Related articles

• Wars of religion (France)
• Reformation Day
• Reformation International Monument
• International Museum of the Reformation
• Protestant reformer

External Links

• (En) Renaissance and reforms by Nicole Lemaitre, University of Paris I
• (En) Reform and Reformation , by the Department of Catechesis of Protestant Churches of Alsace-Lorraine.

Protestantism
Branches of Christianity : Catholicism Orthodoxy Protestantism Anglicanism
Reform	Foundations Bible Jesus Christ Faith Thanks The 5 Solae Reformers Wyclif Hus Luther Calvin
Practices	Names Lutherans Calvinists Baptists Evangelicals Baptists Methodist Pentecostals Other movements Religious actors Theologian Pasteur Bishop Synod Rites Baptism Communion Prayers Events and festivals Christmas Good Friday Easter Ascension Pentecost Buildings Cathedral Church Temple

• Protestantism portal
• Portal History
• Portal of Europe