Origins Of Christianity
The origins of Christianity are complex and largely unknown. It is difficult to get an accurate picture of the item. Even the finest specialists are divided and do not venture to make that more probable hypotheses. Yet it is neither an apology nor a refutation of Christianity but a few facts, somehow connected by those who study them, to each other, given the incomplete nature of the sources.
Christianity is not fully formed out of the head of Jesus , as fully armed Athena arising from that of Zeus. Its development is the result of a history and a complex and lengthy maturation. In truth, and considering that Jesus of Nazareth belongs more to the prehistory of Christianity that its history could be summed up this journey around some names, emblematic of the key moments of the formation of Christianity in a secular perspective and diachronic : Paul of Tarsus (the opposition-faith Act, constitute a break with Judaism for the Gentiles are called to faith, although not under the Act), Ignatius of Antioch (the monarchical episcopate, key vault of the Church institution mediator of salvation), Justin Martyr (born Christian theology), Irenaeus of Lyons (tradition and apostolic succession based on the chronology of the popes, as only legitimate interpreters of scripture and dogma guarantee ), between 50 AD and the late second century AD.
Summary |
Christianity would have appeared as the most current version as a renewal movement within the Judaism of our era. But it's coming out of his land of origin that has acquired its own significance and importance. Therefore the question arises: Who really founded Christianity as a religious system? " Jesus "? or " Paul "?
The New Testament is a reference to Christians on these issues. But in truth the texts could be criticized and they are also long overdue. What is known of the Church of Jerusalem and especially his doctrine? When the Septuagint use the word Kyrios to translate the tetragrammaton sacred, this may be the source of the name of the Lord given to Jesus in the New Testament. But this practice may come from the Hellenism which the term applies especially to the Roman emperor.
And it goes without saying that the Jews speaking Aramaic read their sacred writings in Hebrew - not Greek. It is not enough to treat the religious context in which Christianity was born to talk about sects of Palestinian Judaism at the time, Pharisees , Sadducees , Essenes , Zealots , St John Baptist's current (followers of John the Baptist ) ... It must consider the global context, religious and cultural, of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean in the first two centuries.
Often the religious history of the ancient world, from Alexander the Great initiating the encounter between East and West, and the creation of the Hellenistic monarchies was told from the perspective of subsequent triumph of Christianity, understood as culmination of an inevitable and necessary evolution continues. It is an insidious form of dependence vis--vis the historical determinism, theory handy because everything is explained in advance by the final results.
According to this theory, the ancient world was then crossed by great currents of religious transformation, conducive to the most significant changes in terms of spirituality. The Judaism , in its Hellenistic , that is to say Greek ( Philo ), participated fully in this movement. In that time, the Jews dispersed enjoyed some sympathy among the ruling classes and attracted many curious minds: the practice of the Sabbath ( Shabbat ) appealed, but that of circumcision disliked the quest for financial Temple Jerusalem gave rise to rumors anti-Jewish - " Semitic "is an anachronism.
Arguably, the success of Christianity is rooted in the need for a more personal religion. Is likely that what nagging men and women of our time: the quest hello, looking for a guarantee of a happy life in the hereafter. New ethical concerns in the face of injustice and selfishness of an aristocratic world, appear. The desire is emerging of a personal morality more austere and puritanical in a world or a certain ethical and sexual laxity was common. Research fellowship in a community circle to face a hard life is obvious. Without falling into facile generalizations and necessarily wrong, it was obvious that there was a bit of everything in the spiritual context of those times and we find many explanations for the success of Christianity, taking into account these data.
Camby Philip wrote: "One begins to suspect that this is not Christianity that conquered the ancient world, but a mystery of salvation based on the value of a divine sacrifice which promised redemption of all men of all time, the salvation of the soul and the resurrection of the body " no longer enjoy the same favor. Rudolf Bultmann thought for a moment as the Gnosticism predating Christianity without going to argue that the Christian myth was a variation on the theme of the Gnostic myth of the Savior down to free the sparks of light trapped in matter. The Cardinal Danilou contends, however, that Gnosticism is the result of Judeo-Christian apocalyptic . It is based on the fact that it has no credible evidence of the existence of Gnostic texts, and even less Gnostic sects, which occurred before Christianity.
Walter Burkert in his well-researched book on the mystery cults studied the relationship of Christianity to those religions to support the thesis of a certain specificity of the former . Christians are outside the pagan society. The most recent studies have qualified what we believe to know about the religious attitudes of the first two centuries . In short, if religious crisis, social and cultural life there was, Christianity was not a panacea mandatory.
Since the discovery of the manuscripts of Nag Hammadi data has changed. Timothy Freke and Peter Gandy show, particularly through the study of "The Gospel of Philip "and" Pistis Sophia ", that Gnosticism was not a heretic or minority tendency of Christianity, but the royal road to knowledge of God's mysteries involving the exercise of reason and mystical core .
Jesus, the founder of Christianity?
The figure of Jesus is therefore the prehistory of Christianity rather than its history. And, frankly, we know almost nothing absolutely certain about him. No independent and contemporary does not mention, apart from Testimonium Flavianum is controversial, but it is so for most of the characters of antiquity. The image given to them by the Gospels and New Testament as a whole is coherent, even if it reflects more the teaching of early Christian communities that his own statements, actions and decisions. It is surprising that the Pauline Epistles , the earliest Christian writings, almost no talk about not only bring his words very rarely and little reference to episodes in his life, except death and resurrection.
Jesus is the object of the kerygma of Paul and early Christians, not historical considerations on their part. Christians are not interested in history, primarily because they proclaim the end and overtaking in the eschatological event they wait, the Parousia of the Son of Man.
Jesus preached the Kingdom and it is the Church which has come! The famous saying is a cons-meaning on a sentence of Loisy , but it is only too true. Recall that Loisy intended to refute in his book, The Gospel and the Church, the theories developed by A. Harnack , published in 1900 in his work, The Essence of Christianity. Harnack summed up in a way the conclusions were arrived at by the liberal Protestant scholars in their quest for the historical Jesus .
According to Harnack, the teaching of Jesus could be summarized around three themes: God is Father, the human soul has an infinite value, and the Kingdom of God is known as an ethical ideal to be realized in the believer. This third point of greatest interest to us here. Harnack was merely following the design had developed the dogmatician A. Ritschl the concept of the Kingdom of God. But even then such a conception of the preaching of Jesus was challenged by the latest research of scholars. J. Weiss and Albert Schweitzer , the masters of the school of "the eschatology consistent ", showed that Jesus was primarily a preacher apocalyptic, calling for the conversion pending the appearance of the Son of Man , a figure introduced by the Book of Daniel , and the establishment of the Kingdom of God coincides with the end of this world. Or savior, as alleged orthodoxy or moral teacher as was the Liberals, Jesus was viewed in the context of the Judaism of his time with his expectations and chronic unrest and nationalist messianic, as Josephus describes it if well.
But already in the middle of the nineteenth centuryDavid Strauss has shown how problematic was the liberal attempt to write a biography of naturalist Jesus. . The friend of Nietzsche , F. Overbeck , professor of ecclesiastical history at Basel, represented a turning point no less significant, although a significant portion of its work was not published until long after his death. The main contribution of Overbeck was less than elsewhere in a new approach to the historical Jesus than in the inferences that he was operating, in relation to Christian theological project as a whole. Fundamental critique of Christian theology of all time, regardless of the denomination in question and, of course, primarily of Protestant theology of his time, the thought of the historian of the Church was to highlight the fundamental gap Christian theology, and his total lack of recurring topic that condemned her own, to exist, to recover and "Christianize" the philosophical themes in fashion every time. Neoplatonic of socialism or nationalism of the nineteenth century , theologians could not justify their survival in phagocytosis dominant thinking of their time and offering a version of "Christian" of secular ideologies in vogue. This criticism, as hard as lucid, however, was based on Overbeck for reflection based on the true meaning of Jesus' message. This message will be summarized in the announcement of the impending End Times. It had not occurred and disappeared with his expectations among Christians, Christianity had no proper object.
We stopped at some length on the figure of the nineteenth century because the conclusions they reach remained, in many respects, valid. The differentiation between the "historical Jesus" and "Christ of faith" has been receiving appreciation variables and were able to be drawn from the various consequences, but it is well established that the full historical Gospels is stronger than in fundamentalist circles (there are many degrees of confidence that is given, even in conservative circles, stories about Jesus the more we will set the early date of writing of the Gospels, the more we will naturally inclined to take their word by relying on the freshness of the memories and the impossibility of deceiving the many witnesses still alive), and similarly, the thesis mythiste does "not stand up to analysis" and no longer in university publications.
Jesus of history and Christ of faith. Rudolf Bultmann , quoted above, felt that we could not know anything about the first and, anyway, the topic was irrelevant for theology and preaching Christianity. We can say that the consequences of radicalized and Research School of Shapes (Formgeschischte) dominant in the middle of exegesis twentieth century he was one of the masters with Dibelius. Bultmann deliberately inspired from the philosophy of Heidegger - the early Heidegger, Sein und Zeit that of (the Being and Time ). The Christian faith is not based on history (History). It would undertake the authenticity existential view of thought as its historicity (Geschichtlichkeit) founder. Beyond Bultmann, found in some of his students, as Ernst Ksemann , a strong tendency to want to revive the quest for the historical Jesus. But it's not refound faith in history. This research has continued since the sixties of the twentieth century to arrive at work as those of the Jesus Seminar American.
Knowledge of the world in which Jesus was much refined and improved. Of particular note is the work of Gerd Theissen on the social milieu in which early Christianity developed. But on Jesus himself, we can only say that he was a charismatic itinerant preacher he called for a full conversion to a radical break with the conventions and social norms usual (leaving family, job, material possessions , religious and social habits ...) in view of the imminent end of time. Nothing else mattered except the Kingdom of God which was at the door. Followed by a posse that included several women, unlike the rabbis of his time who even avoided talking to a woman, he felt close to the excluded and poor, those living on the margins, and often at odds with Jewish law that was crushing weight of its many commands. Healer, he sought accreditation for its healing and miracles, then considered natural for such a "divine man" Theios Aner. Jesus appears to be particularly severe vis--vis the Jewish ritual and piety Temple which he considered necessary cleansing, which he began to realize at least symbolically. In this he is in line with the Essenes , and even a certain point of view, that of the Pharisees , whose name means "separated", that interprets the law, practicing passive resistance vis--vis authorities and could not conceive the Judaism as inextricably linked to political reality, which will be fully revealed after the fall of Jerusalem during the Jewish war of 70.
We do not know the exact duration of his ministry, estimates range from a few months ( Charles Guignebert ) to the traditional three years. But it seems he began to climb to Jerusalem , driven by the expectation of the end he preached. This was perhaps to the Passover Jewish, or at the time of the Feast of Tabernacles in the fall - which is unlikely in view of certain elements of the story said the " Palm "palm leaves strewn on the floor and singing the Alleluia. The staging of the rise and this entry into the Holy City would suggest that Jesus presented himself, or allowed himself to submit, as the King of the Jews. It is possible that there was in Jesus itself an evolution of his idea of its role and its place in the scenario of the end. Anyway, having attracted the hostility of the Pharisees by the new interpretation of the Act provides within the context of eschatological urgency he imagined, Jesus confronted the Sadducees masters of the Temple and worship.
Jesus probably tried to purify the Temple ritual to prepare for the coming of the Son of Man, or God Himself in the Holy of Holies (episode recorded in the Gospels and known as "merchants driven from the Temple" ). Following this, or in this case itself, he was arrested by the Jewish Temple guards and handed over to Roman authorities that he filed a suit for political rebellion and sentenced to be crucified. At that time, his followers and disciples, seeing the rout of their hope, fled Jerusalem, except perhaps a few women. Jesus himself seems to have died desperate and morally destroyed ("My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?"). What his body has become not easy. At first glance, it seems unlikely that the Romans returning the bodies of their loved ones tortured. Yet this is attested by the texts and the recent archaeological discovery of a crucified man was buried decently.
The early Christian communities
No one knows exactly how Christianity was born and how many groups contributed to his original confluence.
We can not go back beyond the faith of the early followers of Jesus: he was raised bodily from the dead. The Jews were waiting for the resurrection of the dead for the day of the coming of the Kingdom of God caused by the Messiah. Naturally, the early Christians were led to award this title to Jesus. But unlike other Jews, they distinguished between the resurrection of Jesus and the dead in general they were at the parousia, Christ's return, expected shortly. A short time was left to the people of God to believe in Jesus' message that the Jewish leaders had rejected, convert and wait for his return to the faith and hope by doing this ethic "interim" the seal of which Jesus had struck his message.
It had returned to Galilee where Jesus' disciples that faith took off sometime after the crucifixion of the Master. This experience was an intense spiritual and religious experience it is impossible to say more, but for those who prouvrent was the domain of both the objective and the supernatural. They lived through as a sensitive and outdoor meeting with Jesus, a Jesus who did not return to life but who lived a whole new existence and divine. We can not say more. The only direct evidence is a letter from the apostle Paul saying they received the revelation of the risen Christ in the manner of the early Christians, though many years later, as the latest to have had this experience. Of course it is possible for a priori rejection of any similar experience. We simply see that it is in the same category as all sorts of supernatural events and divine that all religions are the home and we can not make any rational explanation.
The first Christians "assets" who propagated this faith were itinerant charismatic, miracle-workers and probably pushing their preaching on various healings and miracles, like their Master. We can reconstruct their way of life and practices through various passages in the Gospels where Jesus is supposed to get their advice, guidance and encouragement. Probably these itinerant preachers baptized Jews that they were willing to confess the faith he preached and they practiced a primitive form of Holy Communion or Eucharist, "the breaking of bread" symbolic reminder of the meal that Jesus took the disciples with a sign of communion with them and that the Risen Lord was supposed to preside, coming celebration with his new disciples.
These early Christian preachers so inscribe their action in line with what had been the practice of Jesus, leaving everything to follow the risen which he proclaimed the imminent return as judge and king. Those who placed their faith in him by escaping la_mme the trial that Christ would exert against the ungodly, primarily those who had rejected and crucified.
These itinerant preachers were therefore followers put themselves in some way to turn but others formed in towns and villages of Palestine groups of active supporters who greeted, housed, fed the charismatic way. Thus was formed gradually the first communities "Christian".
This first movement was there even a fledgling organization? Actually one can simply compute the leading role of "Twelve" with Peter at their head, the faithful of the first hour followed him from his lifetime and were the first witnesses of his "resurrection", the first propagators of the new faith. The term apostle was booked them until much later. This term which means "sent" should apply in the first time in a form Aramaic at all itinerant preachers we spoke.
Naturally the early preaching of the resurrection of Jesus concerned only the Jews. Both Jews living in Palestine and spoke Aramaic Diaspora Jews, Hellenists spoke Greek, during a trip to Jerusalem. However, one can imagine that some converts, the Gentiles had been converted to Judaism and came to Palestine on a pilgrimage, were affected by the preaching of Christ's disciples. The "God-fearing" Gentiles attracted to Judaism but who had not taken the step to full conversion involving circumcision repugnant to the Greeks and Romans, were too.
There is not much to glean from an historical table that "Luke" because of the primitive church of Jerusalem in the book of Acts. We can still retain a certain communalism. It is clear that the early followers of Jesus, nothing that was not material and had probably glad they shared their meager possessions in the service of the preachers of the Gospel. Frugality, chastity, a spirit of solidarity, intense piety were to mark these areas. It also appears that the year 44 to a first persecution initiated by King Herod Agrippa I , struck several community leaders were executed. That's when the group of "Twelve" dispersed without knowing really what its members became. Now the personality of Jacques "Brother of the Lord", dominated in the Judeo-Christian communities until the Jewish War under Vespasian and Titus did disperst members.
But it was at Antioch , capital of Roman Syria a double decisive change occurred. For the first time of the Hellenists Christians preached the gospel directly from the Pagans and established with these new converts a community that overcomes the rules of ritual purity and Jewish dietary requirements. Antioch is also the name of "Christians" appeared for the first time (the form is a christianos Romanism, which means that the word was not invented for the disciples of Jesus but had already served before the Romans to designate all supporters of Jewish messianic movements).
The disciples of Jesus were definitely distinguished from Jews, a new religion appeared. This happened around the year 36, according to tradition, when the Hellenists had to flee Jerusalem after the martyrdom of Stephen. These Hellenists had apparently he resumed direct attack against the Temple of Jesus and the Sadducees which befell the prosecution against them. It was also at this time and in connection with these events, as Saul of Tarsus, Paul says , was converted. It would be the most active of these new apostles who roamed over the Jewish world but the whole Roman empire to preach the resurrection of Jesus.
The Apostle Paul
With Paul, Christianity will take a new dimension, that of a universal religion. Paul was a Jew of the Diaspora, a disciple of the Pharisees, speaking Greek and Roman citizen. He attributed his conversion to a direct revelation from heaven and began his ministry without being bound to the first disciples. Somehow it is the second founder of Christianity, regardless of charismatic that we talked about earlier, although he also considered himself an inspired run by "The Holy Spirit". But first he had the intuition of the universal character of Christianity, the religion of "Good Lord," preaching a triumphant and exalted Lord.
We are particularly knowledgeable about it since we are fortunate to have him some authentic letters: Epistles to the Corinthians, Romans, Galatians, Epistle to the Thessalonians I, the most ancient Christian texts preserved, Epistle to the Philippians. We have other writings under his name, but their authenticity is disputed even unlikely. the Book of Acts, for its part, has a strong focus on his career and his travels. It is likely that one of its major sources is a travelogue written by a companion of Paul. However, in many ways, the book of Acts should be used with caution ...
We think that Paul was not the first to preach the gospel to the Gentiles. But he did it on a scale and with a determination still unknown. Thus a Christian community existed in Rome in the 60s who owed him nothing, any more than Peter (the book of Acts does not report its presence in the Eternal City - the end of Prince of the Apostles remains historically obscure). It is likely that it was Paul who was responsible for Christian expansion in Asia Minor and Greece.
Without breaking with Judaism or Jewish Christians, Paul found himself in conflict with them on one point: the circumcision of the pagans came to the new faith and full compliance with the commandments of Moses by Gentile Christians. If a tentative agreement could be reached with the Judeo-Christian followers of Pierre and Jacques ("Jerusalem Council"), relations remained difficult, however with the "Brother of the Lord." Paul preached a salvation through faith which was so much to respect the divine commandments and Paul was accused of antinomianism. Most of his letters are precisely aimed at defending his position against his opponents and to rebut attacks against his doctrine. After his disappearance, which we know the circumstances (the tradition he was martyred in Rome under Nero) its influence will decline rapidly before reappearing at the end of the first century when his epistles are collected in collection and start to circulate more widely. Nevertheless an epistle like Jacques reflects the concerns raised position of all time in some circles, and his radical preaching has always implies that the official doctrines of the churches, with few exceptions (eg the original Protestantism since Luther his greatest disciple), qualify their support for Paul in the sense of what we call, for true anachronism, a "semi-Pelagianism" designed to preserve the common morality and to defend the ecclesiastical authority in the field of management hello souls in terms of respect for the law of the Church.
Denounced by the authorities of the Temple of Jerusalem , Paul was arrested and delivered to the Romans, but as a Roman citizen, he claimed the privilege of being tried by a court of imperial Rome. There was conducted but we do not know how the case ends.
The importance of Paul should not be underestimated. Sur le moment son nergie inlassable, l'ardeur qu'il mit accomplir ses grands voyages missionnaires et dfendre ses positions, son engagement pour la conversion des Paens sans les obliger devenir Juifs pour autant, firent franchir au christianisme un palier essentiel dans son dveloppement. Plus tard et jusqu' aujourd'hui, la diffusion et la canonisation de ses lettres, authentiques ou prsumes, en firent une rfrence incontournable pour la thologie chrtienne, mme si toutes ses thses ne furent pas exploites fond. D'autre part son rigorisme, en particulier ne matire sexuelle, et son intransigeance morale, sa misogynie profonde, sans tre son apanage exclusif, ont profondment marqus l'thique chrtienne, sa conception de la vie sociale et son organisation patriarcale de l'glise et de la chrtient (clibat, chastet, certes dj valoriss par Jsus lui-mme, anti-hdonisme, misogynie, homophobie, autoritarisme clrical, conservatisme politique...). Paul prchait la libert chrtienne mais lui refusait toute consquence socio-politique conomique directe (Cf. ses positions sur l'esclavage, divinisation du pouvoir) et la diffrence de Jsus il n'a pas su s'affranchir des prjugs troits des Juifs sur beaucoup de questions comportementales (ce qui est trangement paradoxal pour un prdicateur qui insistait tant sur la notion de libert chrtienne ).
La littrature chrtienne primitive
Comme il a t dit la premire ptre de Paul aux Thessaloniciens est le plus ancien texte chrtien connu (vers 50). Les autres ptres authentiques de Paul lui sont de peu postrieures.
Nous ne savons pas quand ni qui a commenc recueillir les paroles de Jsus et les souvenirs, rcits de miracles ou autres, le concernant. Probablement ds le dbut les prdicateurs itinrants charismatiques dont nous avons parl ont fait rfrences de tels souvenirs et de telles paroles. Mais souvent des inspirations reues du Saint-Esprit, des rvlations de mme origine, ou des rcits de provenance diverses ont t attribus par la tradition Jsus et ensuite placs sous son autorit quand ces paroles et rcits ont commenc tre transcrits sur le papier. Ce phnomne est certainement plus tardifs que certains ont la navet de la croire. le contre exemple de Paul est l pour le prouver. Jamais il ne fait rfrence au moindre document qui pourrait contenir l'bauche d'un vangile. Il connat peu de paroles du Christ et encore moins de rcits le concernant. Il se rfre plusieurs fois ce qui lui a t transmis oralement d'une tradition concernant en premier lieu la rsurrection et les apparitions du ressuscit. Un premier noyau se rapportant Pques et aux apparitions post-pascales pourraient tre l'anctre le plus probable des rcits vangliques, mais l'extrme diversit des traditions conserves ne milite pas pour une fixation rapide sur un support crit. Peut-tre at-il exist rapidement un rcit de la passion : les donnes la concernant sont moins foisonnantes, plus unifies. Quant la fameuse Source Q (les paroles ou logia de Jsus), l'examen attentif de son contenu suppos montre que nombre de paroles ne peuvent pas tre authentiques, mme si le critre de dfinition de l' , parole dont on ne possde aucune correspondance antrieure ou contemporaine Jsus, est vraiment troit. (Les recherches du Jesus Seminar ont abouti la conclusion que seules 20 paroles seraient authentiques. Une nouvelle qute du Jsus historiques se propose de questionner mme ce peu de admis.)
Le plus ancien vangile serait apparemment celui de Marc crit en grec vers 70 (un peu avant ou un peu aprs selon que l'on soutient que l'auteur connaissait ou non la destruction du Temple de Jrusalem par Titus). On a suppos qu'il aurait exist un vangile plus ancien, un proto-Matthieu, crit en aramen, mais les sources sont incertaines et les traces manuscrites inexistantes. Matthieu et Luc, qui combinent Marc et la Source Q , dateraient respectivement de 80 et 85. Jean serait le plus tardif, vers 90. Naturellement les attributions traditionnelles sont purement spculatives et les auteurs inconnus. Matthieu reflterait un milieu judo-chrtien en Syrie , Luc un milieu pagano-chrtien (Grce?) comme Marc. Jean, crit en Asie Mineure (?), manifesterait une priode de vive tension avec le Judasme dont les chrtiens seraient maintenant bien distincts. A noter que "Jean" dveloppe une thologie du Logos qui le rapproche de Philon d'Alexandrie, et reprsente un premier effort de faire se rencontrer foi chrtienne et philosophie grecque. On pourrait song er to a certain knowledge of the Mysteries of Eleusis and their symbolism. A parallel criticism is also outlined in the Gospel among the figures of Jesus and Dionysus , is pure speculation). You can see the continuation of the Hellenistic movement of Stephen . The place could also be located in Alexandria (the origin of the Alexandrian Christianity is unknown although there is the apostolic tradition of Marc) due to parallel Johannine theology and philosophy of Philo. The Rylands Papyrus P52 , the oldest manuscript of the New Testament, dated to 125, contains a passage from the Gospel of John (John :31-33 Jn 18:37-38) and was found in Egypt, which could be another indication of the writing of the text in this country who was known so early. On the other hand, a branch of Eleusis seems to have existed in Alexandria (known by Clement of Alexandria). This group is very marked in squabbles with Judaism with which he broke and attack strongly. The Christian Anti-Judaism still draw the Fourth Gospel in the first place.
The Apocalypse of John itself probably dates from the same period and reflects her deep tension with the Roman world. But it is not clear that the traditional attribution to the same school as the Fourth Gospel is really justified. The intellectual background is really different. That may be a Judeo-Christian document.
The rest of the New Testament date from the late first century, wrote a little later, the Second Epistle of Peter to 120 (?). In any case the process of canonization of the New Testament did not begin until the second century. The first who had the idea to Marcion 120 of the Jewish model (the canon of the Old Testament was set by the Pharisees in Jamnia 90). He was referring to the Gospel of Luke (without the stories of childhood) and some Pauline epistles. His writings were rejected under the pretext that he redacted the original versions to make them consistent with his own dualistic theology. But no one can disentangle the truth and falsehood in that statement. What is certain is that these works had brought from Asia Minor which was probably assembled the first collection of Paul's letters to the late first century. It is probably not the author of the Gospel of Luke as some have argued. But perhaps the infancy narratives of Christ were written at that time to counter it. In any case the large differences between Matthew and Luke on this point shows that it is late and compositional traditions insecure.
Some have also argued that the New Testament writings were written in their entirety to 120-150, when the texts are starting to refer to them. This hypothesis can not be fully disproved, since the facts which support may be seriously alleged. But it remains less likely. If this were the case, either Christianity is a pure invention of the time of the Antonines, under the reference of a Jesus very hypothetical, or Christianity would have then needed to forge this literature to support its age and purpose apologetics. But the existence of a pseudo-epigraph literature and apocrypha dating from the second century is really an indication that goes against this thesis. These works show a completely different direction than the canonical texts, a difference that distinguish them and are undoubtedly an indication of their probable anticipation.
There is also a Christian literature before the start of the second century that has not been canonized. Among these texts are the Epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians, some of which alluded to the martyrdom of Peter and Paul in Rome, the Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch, bishop of that city martyred in Rome in late first century, and we provide valuable information on the institutional development of Christian community of the time, the Didache , the oldest preserved Christian liturgy, the Shepherd of Hermas , a showing that the Apocalypse was not eschatological hope yet quite extinct at the time ... These works have not been canonized because they could not be assigned, even fictionally, an apostle or a direct disciple of the apostles (as Mark and Luke). Other writings are sometimes mentioned, but they disappeared as those of Hierapolis Pappier known only by Eusebius.
There are also some works from the Judeo-Christian backgrounds who have survived, sometimes attributed to Jewish writers and rewritten by Christian hands:
- Ascension of Isaiah (late first century);
- Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (80-90);
- II Enoch or the Book of Secrets of Enoch or Slavonic Enoch (late 1st century);
- Odes of Solomon (early second century, Syria);
- Epistle of Barnabas (120);
- Sibylline Oracles (between 100 and late second century);
- Revelation of Elkas (116-117).
As shown by P. Danielou, we're often here at the crossroads between Gnosticism , Hermetica, Judaism and Christianity.
Evidence Jews and Gentiles to the Christian origins
The testimony on Jewish and pagan origins of Christianity are extremely rare. But this is not surprising, Christianity began to be talked about only in the early second century. Previously, as the germinating wheat terra unknown, no one noticed. And then, if there are many pagan philosophers who argue against him, if historians interested in the sect and if a writer full of mocking irony ( Lucien in his work On the Death of Peregrine, 11.), they naturally not have much information about its true origin.
Flavius Josephus
Flavius Josephus , a Jew committed to the cause of Rome, speaks of Christianity twice. In Jewish Antiquities , XVIII, 63-64, , he speaks of Jesus Christ in a way that has caused much ink, and some accept as authentic, others as interpolated, and finally others as transformed by a Christian hand - which is most likely. In another passage , Josephus mentions the tragic death of Jacques' Brother of the Lord. " While these references do not teach us anything fundamental, the fact remains that the Jewish historian seems to be a witness, not a Christian, the most direct and most serious of the historicity of Jesus and the existence of a Judeo-Christian movement in Palestine in the first century.
Suetonius
The main evidence pagans are after, and they too unoriginal. Suetonius (v.120), Vita Claudii, 11: Claude "drove the city's Jews who rose up constantly at the instigation of a certain Chrestus."
Chrestus the Good, has any chance of being a slave Jewish leader of a messianic agitation in Rome during the reign of Claudius. So it is unlikely that this passage, whatever people think is relevant to Christians. The date of the founding of the Christian community in Rome is unknown, but predates the year 60, as Paul writes to him at 57.
The expulsion of Jews from Rome is also known by the Acts of the Apostles , 18: 2. But this Aquila, Italy expelled, does not seem to be a Christian when Paul made his acquaintance. The text says only that he was Jewish. So the reason for the expulsion of Jews from Rome is not Christian propaganda.
Tacitus
Tacitus (same date), Annals, 15-44: "But no human means, nor imperial generosity, nor expiatory ceremonies did silence the public voice accusing Nero of ordering the fire. To allay these rumors, he offered other culprits, and made to suffer the tortures of the most refined of men to a class hated for their abominations, and the vulgar called Christians. This name comes from Christ, who, under Tiberius, was delivered to death by the procurator Pontius Pilatus. Repressed for a moment, this pernicious superstition again overflowed, not only in Judea, where it had its source, but even in Rome, where everything shuts the world of infamy and horror flows and find supporters. It first seized those who confessed their sect and their revelations, an infinity of others who were less convinced that the fire of hatred for mankind. They made their punishment entertainment: some covered with animal skins, eaten by dogs perish, while others died on the cross, or they were coated with flammable material, and when the day ceased to shine, we burning up the torches. Nero made his gardens for this spectacle, and gave the same time the circus, where sometimes he mingled with people dressed as a coachman, and sometimes driving a chariot. Also, although these men were guilty and would have deserved the utmost severity, opened hearts to compassion, thinking that this was not the public good, but the cruelty of one, they were sacrificed. "
So there were Christians in Rome under Nero, what Paul and the Book of Acts confirmed. The emperor deflect rumors that accuse him of starting the fire of Rome on the heads of Christians, but the crowd is not fooled. Yet no real pity for those who hate the human race. The content of religious beliefs is not specified. Christ has clearly been executed properly, according to Tacitus, for political reasons, sedition, infamy, superstition. As for participants in Bacchanalia so severely repressed in -186, Christians are dangerous sedition that threaten the political order and probably social. The background of Jewish messianism, on which Christianity was born, and the fanaticism and dangerous mixing inherently political and religious, still very present in the consciousness of Tacitus, as already one of the contemporaries of Nero. Let us not forget that Jesus has left cheer as the King of the Jews and he was sentenced for political reasons. The messianic character, secret, occult (the discipline of the arcane), antisocial (refusing to worship the Emperor as a sign of loyalty to Rome) explains his rejection of Christianity certainly unanimous uses Nero for unworthy.
Pliny the Younger
Book X - Letters 97 and 98 on the Christians (110,112 v) - Pliny to the Emperor Trajan
"I am a religion, Lord, you expose all my scruples, for who can best, or induce me or teach me?" I've never attended the trial and sentencing trial of any Christian. So I do not know what falls information that is made against them, nor how far they should take their punishment. I hesitate a lot about the difference in ages. Should they be subject to all the trouble, without distinguishing the younger older? Should we forgive those who repent? or is it useless to renounce Christianity when once we have embraced? Is that the name alone would be punished in them ? or are the crimes committed in the name? But here's the rule I follow in the charges brought against Christians in front of me. I asked them if they were Christians. Those who have confessed, I I interviewed a second and a third time, and I risk of execution. When they persisted, I have sent them there. For, of any kind was what they confessed, I thought we did was bound to punish them in their disobedience and their invincible obstinacy. There were others, of the obstinate folly, I reserved to send to Rome, because they are Roman citizens. In the following, from this crime to spread, as usually happens, the result was presented in several species. I was handed over a memorandum anonymously, which is accused of being Christian that different people deny the being and have never been. They have, in my presence, and in terms that I would prescribe, invoked the gods, and offered incense and wine to your image, I is made explicit with the statues of our gods and they have even taken away in imprecations against Christ. This is what is said, one can not force those who are truly Christians. So I thought that he was absolved. Others, referred by an informant, were first recognized that they were Christians, and immediately after they denied, saying that they really had been, but they have stopped be, to some, there were more than three years, the other from a greater number of years, some for over twenty. All these people have worshiped your image and the statues of gods and all Christ instructed curses. They ensured that all their fault or error had been contained in these points: that a day marked, they assembled before sunrise, and sang alternately verses in praise of Christ, as if he were god, they pledged an oath, not to some crime, but not to commit theft or adultery, not to miss their promise, to not to deny a Repository: after that they used to separate, and then gather together to eat foods innocent, they had stopped doing since my edict, by which, according to your instructions, I backed all kinds of meetings. It made me try all the more necessary to extract the truth by force of torments two slave girls they said was in the ministry of their faith but I have discovered that a bad superstition carried to excess, and, for this reason, I ask you all hanging for your orders. The case seemed to me worthy of your thoughts, by the multitude of those who are wrapped in Danger : because so many people of any age, any level, any gender, are and will be daily involved in this accusation. This contagious disease has not only infected the cities, he won the villages and campaigns. I believe however that there can be remedied, and it can be stopped. What is certain is that the temples, which were almost deserted, are attended, and that sacrifices long neglected again. We sell all of the victims, who were previously few buyers. Hence, one can judge how much people can be brought back from their error, if one is through repentance. "
Trajan to Pliny
"You, my dear Pliny, follow the path you need instruction in the trial of the Christians that have been brought, for it is not possible to establish a certain and general form in this kind of business. Do not do search: if charged and convicted, he must be punished. Yet if the accused denies that he is a Christian, and he proves by his conduct, I mean by invoking the gods, he must forgive his repentance of any suspicion that he was previously charged. Moreover, in no kind of crime you should receive denunciations are subscribed to anyone, because this is a pernicious example, and far removed from our maxims. "
This correspondence has raised many questions. First its authenticity has aroused doubts as Pliny the Younger himself only published nine books and correspondence that percentage, if authentic posthumous publication, has been found only in the XV century. It is known only by a statement of Tertullian. Other ancient writers, pagan, ignore it. Other hand we have no direct or indirect evidence of the reality of the Government of the Pliny of Bithynia which seems to have been a senatorial province. However it is unlikely that the code has been forged in its entirety for two letters on the Christians. We therefore assume its authenticity. It is even a contemporary account of the facts he recounts, so superior to its previous value.
More curious still the attitude of Pliny and Trajan. It seems obvious that Christianity is evil and that Christians should continue, but it seems no longer know how dangerous it actually is. So we settle for half-measures: Do not look for Christians, but condemn those who, unfortunately for them, will be discovered. Therefore contain rather than repress systematically. Perhaps also that Christians were already so numerous in Bithynia that significant action seemed impossible as dangerous to social peace and civil? It seems that especially Pliny and Trajan thought a few warning shots would be enough to bring the lost sheep to the flock and deter the spread of plague. It also seems that for enlightened minds like those of the governor and the emperor this superstition seemed ridiculous, though Roman citizens were involved. But they made illusions, this is related to a pattern that we explain in the next paragraph. When the Empire wakes under Decius, it will be too late.
Early Christianity from 80 to 120
Criticism of perspectives heresiologists
We must say a word here about the work of Irenaeus of Lyons , who was the first historian of Christianity. But his information and lists of bishops that produced in support of his anti-heretical theories, including that of the bishops of Rome, does not prove much, and we do that are of little use, since mostly show his ignorance of the actual sociological conditions of early Christianity. His lack of historical perspective is obvious, and if we can glean a couple of interesting details, the whole is more than suspect because of its proven bias.
The official story of "heresiologists" licensed like Irenaeus and Eusebius , initially raised the absolute unity of the Church embodied in an apostolic succession of irreproachable bishop bishop since the Apostles , without interruption, these bishops as guarantor of orthodoxy of the creed professed their local churches. A typical example is the Church of Rome, capital of the Empire, whose first bishop could be that Peter , Prince of the Apostles, the rock on which the Universal Church (Catholic) is built (see Matt. 16: 18-19). From this trunk were detached twigs "rotten" heresies which our authors genealogy since Simon Magus (Act.8 :9-21) the first heretic - especially Gnostic heresies so although they also stigmatize certain Jewish deviance -Christian Ebionites and others ...
Simplistic and idealistic as it swept by contemporary research! We now know, for example, that in Rome in the second century, the Valentinian , the Gnostic "heretics" were the branch of Christianity's most thriving.
Diversity of the Jesus movement
Since the origin of Christianity is different. Itinerant charismatics, Christianity of Paul, Christianity Pierre Jacques Christianity, Christianity of Stephen , Christianity of John, etc.. as much power from different sources, probably independent of each other at first, as shown in the case of Paul with a particularly acute because it is an autobiographical account (Gal.1 :16-17). Naturally all these currents referred to the preaching of Jesus and especially his resurrection. Some approached it and federalized, so the current Paul, Pierre and Jacques, as stated in Gal.2: 9. But the Judeo-Christian then isolated himself more and more. So recomposition and decomposition succeeded constantly and we have no documents to establish a chronology and an overview of the movement in question. Each witness is given an isolated incident we would have a hard time we used to call a general picture of the situation.
Judeo-Christianity withers after the Jewish War of 66-70. The community of Jerusalem went into exile in Transjordan, in Pella , under the direction of the family of Jesus. Eusebius (Ecclesiastical History, bk. III. chap. xx.) informs us that according Hegesippus , "two grand-son "of Judas , brother or cousin of Jesus, "were brought to the Emperor Domitian as descendants of David, and having a clear right to the throne of Jerusalem. Domitian, fearing they will use this law, he asked Similarly, they explained their genealogy, the emperor asked them what was their fortune, they said they has thirty-nine acres of land, which paid tribute, and they worked for a living. The emperor asked them happen when the Kingdom of Jesus Christ: they said it would be at the end of the world. After Domitian let them go in peace. " But this Hegesippus, whose works have disappeared, no more reliable Eusebius! After 135 and Jewish War, followed by the expulsion of all Jews from Palestine, this current disappeared completely. He is best known Gnostic movements derived.
To 80, occurred a revival of Pauline thought in Asia Minor. That's when we met in his letters that were written and collected the deutero-Pauline epistles.
The turn of the second century 
The second century anti-Christian graffiti depicting a crucified donkey. The commentary suggests that God respects Alexamenos this drawing jeers soldier converted. The discipline of the arcane
Concerning the conflict of doctrines, we must not forget that early Christianity practiced the discipline of the arcane . That is to say that Christians were protecting the transmission of their doctrines, as attested by many church fathers in their writings to the fourth century , by not revealing only to baptized. They remained hidden for others and the catechumenate can be compared with beginners. Jesus himself had preached to the crowds in parables so that they do not understand his message, but the disciples, it was given to know the secrets of the kingdom of God. Paul preaches a hidden wisdom and mysterious, but among the perfect, insiders. It remains inaccessible to others, even within the Christian community. We also know that there is a baptism for the dead whose concrete meaning escapes us but the revelation was to be part of this doctrine reserved. Etc.. The Epistles do we therefore provide no information that would allow us to doctrinal reconstruct Paul's teaching in all its dimensions because this teaching was first spoken. Like many esoteric circles, the word is dominant in early Christianity, in imitation of the practices of ancient mysteries. It is wary of writing first because that is entrusted to parchment can less easily be kept secret. This is not a book that is authoritative but a person who can decline his genealogy in the group, from master to disciple from the beginning, his legitimate succession doctrine. All this will be found later in the Catholic doctrine of tradition. Of course the early Christians knew the concept of Scripture was the Old Testament of our modern Bibles. But it had value as less as "letter" that the Spirit, the living Word of Christ passed from hand to hand and word of mouth and lit explained.
Therefore, when we have the heresiologists "hrsiaques" image of the founders of Greek philosophical schools, separating from their owners to form their own group around their teaching staff, beware. These "heretics" are also demanding an unbroken chain of witnesses going back to Jesus and preserving the authenticity and integrity of their teachings. Lines of different witnesses actually refers to divergent interpretations primitives already. But these original interpretations were enhanced and distorted by all sides in a similar manner and probably equal.
Canon, dogma, philosophy and theology
However, about 120, the proliferation of oral traditions, enriched and distorted from generation to generation, becomes dangerous to the integrity of Christianity. This will protect by forming a Canon official texts in the image of Jews having to 90, Jamnia definitely set the Canon of the First Testament. Marcion is to be the intuition of the necessity which will then be imitated by all sides, with each group setting their written doctrines and traditions, as shown in the second-third centuries the proliferation of writings "orthodox" and "gnostic ". But by attaching to a support, traditions freeze and lose their ability to transform. Christianity became a doctrine, the period of the Councils with their creed and their infallible dogma will open.
A whole stream of Christianity, one that will triumph later under Constantine is also movement in the same approximate the pagan society and its philosophical culture. It will succumb to its prestige and try to follow the Greco-Roman cultural model. To be credible, Christianity must speak the language of his time and follow the cultural fashions of the world where it operates. This immediately gives the apologists (many of whom are converts of philosophers, starting with Justin and Aristides) who want to give respectability to their religion and defend it against its detractors, and theologians (School of Alexandria). They imitate the practices of outright pagan philosophers interpreting myths. Le christianisme adapte le noplatonisme ses besoins et coule ses doctrines dans le moule et les catgories de cette cole. D'ailleurs Platon n'a-t-il pas tir sa sagesse de Mose? Fort de ce prsuppos fallacieux, les premiers thologiens chrtiens transforment radicalement l'allure de leur enseignement.
L'glise devient une institution hirarchique et sacerdotale, dont le rle majeur est d'interprter les textes fondateurs, par le truchement de thologiens dment accrdits. Elle devient donc une secte philosophique, d'un genre un peu particulier certes, puisque les rites et les clbrations religieuses y occupent une place considrable. Mais autrefois les Pythagoriciens ou cette poque les Noplatoniciens ont eu et ont encore d'importantes proccupations religieuses et rituelles. La pratique de la thurgie est l pour le prouver !
checs et transformations : lutte pour la survie
Si on y rflchit bien, ces transformations forment un tout cohrent, dont le moteur interne est, avec l'loignement des temps fondateurs, la ncessit de s'organiser pour durer et perdurer. Cependant Jsus avait prch l'imminence du Royaume de Dieu en la personne du Fils de l'Homme venant sur les nues pour juger "cette" gnration. Les premiers tmoins de sa Rsurrection annonaient son retour prochain. Un ultime dlai tait laiss aux hommes pour se convertir. Or vers 120, la II e ptre de Pierre constate le retard de la Parousie et fait tat d'une certaine dsillusion. La fivre eschatologique des dbuts passe de mode. L'glise s'organise pour durer mais ce faisant, elle perd sa spcificit originelle, et son authenticit. Son message se dilue en une philosophie mondaine qui imite les grands courants culturels des temps. La Parousie devint une doctrine trs priphrique. Le projet de btir une civilisation chrtienne s'imposa aux vques et se ralisa ds le IV e sicle. Le salut des mes devient le pivot de la prdication et l'aiguillon pour la conduite morale exige de peuples souvent christianiss de force. L'immortalit de l'me d'ailleurs proccupa davantage les thologiens que la rsurrection des corps, renvoye un avenir brumeux et de plus en plus lointain.
Mais alors il faut donner raison Overbeck. En cessant d'tre un groupe apocalyptique tendu vers la Parousie imminente du Christ, les chrtiens ont perdu leur nature propre. Le christianisme devient un fait de socit, une grandeur mondaine, sociale et historique. Il devient une idologie. Mais cette idologie n'a pas mme de contours propres bien dfinis. La thologie chrtienne, depuis Clment jusqu' aujourd'hui, n'a eu qu'une seule tche : faire durer ce qui ne vivait plus en christianisant toutes sortes de philosophies et d'idologies profanes pour permettre l'glise et sa hirarchie de justifier son existence et sa prtention une emprise dcisive sur les hommes. Du noplatonisme au fminisme, en passant par Aristote et Marx,les thologiens n'ont eu de cesse, faute de proclamer le message chrtien authentique auquel ils ne pouvaient plus croire : Maranatha, le Seigneur vient ! , d'annexer les ides phares de leurs sicles successifs en les recouvrant d'un vernis biblique ou en les ajustant de force la Bible (l'exemple type tant le rapport de Saint-Thomas la pense d'Aristote).
Et si les thologiens ne pouvaient plus proclamer : " !", c'est que Jsus n'tait pas revenu... De mme que la proclamation de la rsurrection de Jsus est venue de la sublimation d'un chec, celui de la Croix, l'existence du christianisme tient la sublimation d'un autre chec et une absence : celle de la parousie.
Par dfinition, Jsus ne peut pas avoir t le fondateur du mouvement chrtien. L'existence de ce mouvement est la preuve de l'chec de Jsus. De mme l'existence continue du christianisme depuis que vers 120 on cessa de croire en une Parousie imminente est la preuve de l'chec de l'esprance originelle des prdicateurs charismatiques qui proclamaient la rsurrection de Jsus sur les routes de Galile. Le christianisme est n le jour o le Mouvement de Jsus a cess d'exister, avec Marcion et la IIe ptre de Pierre!
C'est l tout le paradoxe chrtien! Le christianisme existe parce que l'esprance chrtienne ne s'est pas concrtise! D'ailleurs les trois plus grands thologiens chrtiens, Martin Luther, Soren Kierkegaard et Karl Barth ont justement fond leur rflexion sur ce caractre paradoxal et impossible du christianisme.
Notes
Les termes Christianos, Chrestos, Christos
En grec, (pl.: ) est un latinisme par sa forme. Le suffixe -ianos est clairement tranger la langue grecque.Si le mot et t grec, sa forme et t (pl.: ) - sur le modle , les disciples de la Stoa, les Stociens. Donc le terme a t forg par l'administration romaine, en Orient, et grcis ultrieurement. Il dsignait au dpart tout Juif membre d'une secte ou mouvement messianique quelconque, et ce n'est qu' qu'il a servi exclusivement dsigner les partisans de Jsus de Nazareth. Certes Jsus lui-mme ne semble pas s'tre prsent comme le Messie attendu. Ce sont ses fidles aprs Pques qui l'ont prsent ainsi, quoique son entre Jrusalem se fut droule dans des conditions o ses revendications royales pussent apparatre manifestes.
D'autre part la langue grecque connaissait deux adjectifs, , bon, et , enduit, qui par effet de iotacisme se prononaient ds cette poque de faon semblable. De plus Chrestos tait souvent un nom port par des esclaves d'origine grecque. Enfin, dans le grec profane, l'adjectif tait rare et ne dsignait qu'une surface enduite. Ce sont les Juifs qui ont donn ce mot son sens (royal et religieux) de oint en l'utilisant dans la traduction des LXX. Dans ces conditions il peut y avoir eu confusion. Sutone a pu facilement se mprendre sur la tradition qu'il rapporte de l'agitation juive Rome sous Claude. Il crit qu'elle se droulait sous l'impulsion d'un certain "Chrestus". Esclave juif portant ce nom la tte des agitateurs ? Ou bien agitation messianique, au nom de "Christos", le Messie attendu ? Ou bien premire manifestation romaine des partisans de Jsus-Christ ? On peut alors songer une meute provoque par les Juifs contre eux, leur expulsion de la synagogue, voire un conflit interne entre judo-chrtiens et pagano-chrtiens.
D'autre part, certains ont soutenu que la prdication paulinienne originelle tait celle de Jsus Chrestos, le Bon - prdication reprise par Marcion qui distinguait entre un Dieu mauvais, Crateur, le Dieu des Juifs et de l'AT, et le Dieu Bon, Pre de Jsus et rvl dans le Nouveau Testament. l'appui de cette thse on cite mme Justin , Tertullien (corrig car le texte reu fait bien la distinction ) et Clment .Mais il est peu probable que le terme originel ait t remplac par l'obscur - ! Il est bien plus probable que les Grecs aient compris le Bon quand les chrtiens disaient l'Oint. C'est peut-tre Marcion, au contraire qui fit la confusion et en dduisit son ide d'un Jsus prchant une Dieu nouveau, Bon Sauveur. Ce titre est rest de toute manire Jsus, comme on disait le "Bon Dieu" autrefois pour parler du Pre.
Le phnomne des pseudpigraphes et apocryphes
On appelle pseudepigraphes des ouvrages se prsentant comme crits par un auteur connu par ailleurs mais sous l'autorit duquel on place faussement les uvres en question. Ainsi les ptres dites deutro-paulinienne (Colossiens, Ephsiens, II Thessaloniciens) ou Pastorales (I et II Timothe, Tite) sont des pseudpigraphes. De mme les ptres de Pierre, de Jacques, de Jude... Il est noter que les vangiles et le Livre des Actes, ainsi que l'ptre aux Hbreux, n'entrent pas dans cette catgorie car ils se prsentent sans nom d'auteur. Le cas de l'Apocalypse est encore part, car son auteur se prsente sous le nom de Jean, mais c'est la tradition, et non le texte, qui l'identifie l'Aptre du mme nom.
S'agit-il de cas de fraude littraire ? Certainement pas au sens moderne. D'abord la notion de proprit intellectuelle n'existait pas dans l'Antiquit. Ensuite si l'auteur a recours un nom prestigieux, sous le couvert duquel il se prsente, pour se donner du crdit, son intention n'est pas malhonnte en principe. Il s'agit d'actualiser une pense et une tradition (par exemple celle de Paul) dans un contexte nouveau, quand se posent de nouvelles questions doctrinales, morales ou institutionnelles, en dveloppant les ides autrefois mises par le personnage en question. En quelque sorte l'auteur rpond la question : que dirait Paul ou Pierre aujourd'hui face ce nouveau dfi ? Naturellement, il ya une part d'arbitraire dans la mthode et les dveloppements apports peuvent s'loigner assez fortement de l'original, mais l'intention est bien prcise et sans connotation pjorative.
Par contre les apocryphes sont des crits, le plus souvent composs aux II e et III e sicles dans divers milieux, souvent judo-chrtiens ou gnostiques, pour fixer les doctrines sotriques de ces groupes.
References
- Philippe Camby, , Paris, 2006, p.158
- Article Franck Cumont sur WP en:
- Bultmann, Rudolf, Das Urchristentum im Rahmen der antiken Religionen, Zrich, 1949; Theologie des Neuen Testaments, Goettingen, 1953.
- Jean Danilou , , Descle, 1958 "Bibliothque de thologie. Histoire des doctrines chrtiennes avant Nice ;
- Walter Burkert, , Belles Lettres, coll. Vrit des mythes , 2003.
- Ramsay McMullen, , PUF, 1987
- Les Mystres de Jsus. Timothy Freke et Peter Gandy
- Qutes du Jsus historique
- http://en.orgSon_of_man
- Le scandale avait t grand. Mais la tendance dduire son point de vue de la philosophie de Hegel avait finalement nui la crdibilit de l'uvre et Strauss lui-mme avait trop vari dans ses positions successives pour faire vraiment cole. Ce sera Albert Schweitzer qui dmontrera que c'est impossible, en 1902
- Pierre Geoltrain , article de l' a href = "% C3% Encyclop A6dia_Universalis" title = "Encyclopaedia Universalis"> Encyclopaedia Universalis, 2002.
- Wilfrid Harrington, New Introduction to the Bible, Seuil, 1971.
- Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung of Johannesevangeliums
- Cullmann, The Johannine community. Study on the origin of the Gospel of John (Neuchatel 1976)
- ibid
- 1 Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea (265-340). This is the standard corresponding to a double Greek manuscript tradition that we came very corrupt. Towards those days a wise man is born, if we call him a man. He accomplished such amazing acts and became a teacher for people who enthusiastically accepted the truth. And he managed to convince many Jews and Greeks. Christ was him. And when, as a result of the charge from notable people among us, he was condemned by Pilate to be crucified, those who had loved him from the beginning did not cease. It appeared the third day alive again in the words of the divine prophets that tell this and a thousand other marvels about him. And to this day the people called Christian after him has not disappeared. "(Translation by Herman Somers) And about those days came another insult cause a sedition of the Jews." 2 A Universal History of Agapios, Melkite bishop of Hierapolis in Syria in the tenth century. In 1971 Professor Shlomo Pines Hebrew University of Jerusalem drew attention to the text in Arabic that nobody noticed when he was yet translated into French. "At that time there lived a wise man named Jesus. He behaved well and was esteemed for his virtue. Many were those, both Jews and people of other nations, who became his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified and die. But those who had become his disciples did not cease to follow his teaching. They recounted that he had appeared three days after his crucifixion and that he was alive. Maybe he was the Messiah whom the prophets have told so many wonders. "3 Syriac Chronicle of Michael the Syrian, Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch in the twelfth century." In those days there was a wise man the name of Jesus if we should call it man. For he was the author of works of master and glorious truth. And many among the Jews and among the nations he made his disciples. We thought he was the Messiah. And not according to the testimony of the leaders of our people. Therefore Pilate handed him over to the punishment of the cross and died. And therefore those who loved him did not cease to love. They appeared after three days, living. For the prophets of God had told him about such wonders. And to this day has not stopped Christian people pulling him his name. "Recreating A 4. Pelletier back in the World of the Bible, No. 109, 1998, p 18-19: sources Literary life of Jesus and the Gospel books Supplements, No. 36, Flavius Josephus, Cerf, p 51. Note that in his article Michael Quesnel World Bible does not specify that the proposed translation is a modern reconstruction! "At that time lived Jesus, a remarkable man because he performed miraculous things. Master of people who were willing to welcome to the doctrines of good quality, he won a lot of people among the Jews and even among the Greeks. Where on the termination of our leaders, Pilate had condemned to the cross, those who had given him their affection at the beginning did not cease to love him, because he had appeared on the third day alive again, as the divine prophets had said, and a thousand other marvels about him. Today still has not dried up the line of those that because of him called Christians. 5 Translation of Herman Somers who has two small corrections to the Greek text which leads to an original translation and renewed. "To those days a wise man is born, if we call it wise. He was doing such acts weird and became a teacher for people who really accepted him with enthusiasm. And he managed to convince many Jews and Greeks (as) himself was the Christ. And he (rightly) that due to the charge from notable people among us, had been condemned by Pilate to be crucified, and those who had loved from the beginning did not cease (to pretend:) he had appeared on the third day alive again, the divine prophets had claimed this and a thousand other marvels about him. And to this day on ( small) people called Christian after he has not disappeared. http://www.ebior.org/Vie-de-Jesus/Josephe.htm
- Jewish Antiquities, XX, 197-203: "Hanne the youth who had received the high priesthood, was supremely daring and impetuous temperament, and he belonged to the party of the Sadducees in their judgments are very hard among all Jews, as we have already shown. With such a Related articles
- Philippe Camby, , Paris, 2006, p.158
- Article Franck Cumont sur WP en:
- Bultmann, Rudolf, Das Urchristentum im Rahmen der antiken Religionen, Zrich, 1949; Theologie des Neuen Testaments, Goettingen, 1953.
- Jean Danilou , , Descle, 1958 "Bibliothque de thologie. Histoire des doctrines chrtiennes avant Nice ;
- Walter Burkert, , Belles Lettres, coll. Vrit des mythes , 2003.
- Ramsay McMullen, , PUF, 1987
- Les Mystres de Jsus. Timothy Freke et Peter Gandy
- Qutes du Jsus historique
- http://en.orgSon_of_man
- Le scandale avait t grand. Mais la tendance dduire son point de vue de la philosophie de Hegel avait finalement nui la crdibilit de l'uvre et Strauss lui-mme avait trop vari dans ses positions successives pour faire vraiment cole. Ce sera Albert Schweitzer qui dmontrera que c'est impossible, en 1902
- Pierre Geoltrain , article de l' a href = "% C3% Encyclop A6dia_Universalis" title = "Encyclopaedia Universalis"> Encyclopaedia Universalis, 2002.
- Wilfrid Harrington, New Introduction to the Bible, Seuil, 1971.
- Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung of Johannesevangeliums
- Cullmann, The Johannine community. Study on the origin of the Gospel of John (Neuchatel 1976)
- ibid
- 1 Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea (265-340). This is the standard corresponding to a double Greek manuscript tradition that we came very corrupt. Towards those days a wise man is born, if we call him a man. He accomplished such amazing acts and became a teacher for people who enthusiastically accepted the truth. And he managed to convince many Jews and Greeks. Christ was him. And when, as a result of the charge from notable people among us, he was condemned by Pilate to be crucified, those who had loved him from the beginning did not cease. It appeared the third day alive again in the words of the divine prophets that tell this and a thousand other marvels about him. And to this day the people called Christian after him has not disappeared. "(Translation by Herman Somers) And about those days came another insult cause a sedition of the Jews." 2 A Universal History of Agapios, Melkite bishop of Hierapolis in Syria in the tenth century. In 1971 Professor Shlomo Pines Hebrew University of Jerusalem drew attention to the text in Arabic that nobody noticed when he was yet translated into French. "At that time there lived a wise man named Jesus. He behaved well and was esteemed for his virtue. Many were those, both Jews and people of other nations, who became his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified and die. But those who had become his disciples did not cease to follow his teaching. They recounted that he had appeared three days after his crucifixion and that he was alive. Maybe he was the Messiah whom the prophets have told so many wonders. "3 Syriac Chronicle of Michael the Syrian, Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch in the twelfth century." In those days there was a wise man the name of Jesus if we should call it man. For he was the author of works of master and glorious truth. And many among the Jews and among the nations he made his disciples. We thought he was the Messiah. And not according to the testimony of the leaders of our people. Therefore Pilate handed him over to the punishment of the cross and died. And therefore those who loved him did not cease to love. They appeared after three days, living. For the prophets of God had told him about such wonders. And to this day has not stopped Christian people pulling him his name. "Recreating A 4. Pelletier back in the World of the Bible, No. 109, 1998, p 18-19: sources Literary life of Jesus and the Gospel books Supplements, No. 36, Flavius Josephus, Cerf, p 51. Note that in his article Michael Quesnel World Bible does not specify that the proposed translation is a modern reconstruction! "At that time lived Jesus, a remarkable man because he performed miraculous things. Master of people who were willing to welcome to the doctrines of good quality, he won a lot of people among the Jews and even among the Greeks. Where on the termination of our leaders, Pilate had condemned to the cross, those who had given him their affection at the beginning did not cease to love him, because he had appeared on the third day alive again, as the divine prophets had said, and a thousand other marvels about him. Today still has not dried up the line of those that because of him called Christians. 5 Translation of Herman Somers who has two small corrections to the Greek text which leads to an original translation and renewed. "To those days a wise man is born, if we call it wise. He was doing such acts weird and became a teacher for people who really accepted him with enthusiasm. And he managed to convince many Jews and Greeks (as) himself was the Christ. And he (rightly) that due to the charge from notable people among us, had been condemned by Pilate to be crucified, and those who had loved from the beginning did not cease (to pretend:) he had appeared on the third day alive again, the divine prophets had claimed this and a thousand other marvels about him. And to this day on ( small) people called Christian after he has not disappeared. http://www.ebior.org/Vie-de-Jesus/Josephe.htm
- Jewish Antiquities, XX, 197-203: "Hanne the youth who had received the high priesthood, was supremely daring and impetuous temperament, and he belonged to the party of the Sadducees in their judgments are very hard among all Jews, as we have already shown. With such a Related articles
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