History and distribution of Neanderthals , The Neanderthal man is a representative of the genus Homo , whose appearance and evolution are linked to mainland Europe , even if Neanderthals were subsequently emigrated to the Middle East , the current territories of Iraq , the Syria and Israel , as well as in Central Asia (Techik-Tash, in Uzbekistan ) and in Siberia. In 2007, the geographical distribution of Neanderthals is further specified: their expansion is delayed for 2 000 km east from the site Techik-Tash, the easternmost known before. Bone fragments from the cave Okladnikov in the Altai , poorly referenced previously, are attributed to Neanderthals after genetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig. According to the researchers, the mitochondrial DNA of Neanderthals in the Altai is also closer to that of the Neanderthal cave Scladina, Belgium, than that of Uzbekistan , suggesting several waves of migrations and settlements the region. The geneticist Svante Pbo's team suggests that the presence of Neanderthals in the Altai makes possible an extension over Eastern Europe, Mongolia and even in China , .
There is more than a million years, some human groups have arrived in successive waves in Europe during brief stints with left few traces in the form of carved stones. Oldest European human fossil dating back 1.8 million years and were uncovered in the east of the continent at Dmanisi in Georgia. Their anatomy, intermediate between those of Homo habilis and Homo erectus , led to the definition of a new species called Homo georgicus. From 400,000 years before present, the population of Europe is intensifying, with no doubt the arrival of the ancestor of the Neanderthals. The oldest date back pre-Neanderthals and 500 to 350 000 years.
The evolution that led to the emergence of Homo neanderthalensis, sometimes called "nandertalisation" is a slow and gradual. It was probably as the origin of isolated human groups in Europe, whether of Homo erectus , to Homo georgicus or Homo antecessor. It can be followed from different fuels, sometimes referred to as "Anteneandertal" or, better, "pre-Neanderthals" to the recent Neanderthals.
The Pre-Neanderthal old
The first step is usually attributed to fossil Homo heidelbergensis : the case of Tautavel Man ( - 400 000 years ), found in the Corbieres in France, the Mauer mandible ( - 600 000 years ) found near Heidelberg in Germany , or skull Petralona ( Greece ).
Distribution map of main sites have yielded remains of pre-Neanderthal or Neandertal ancient
The Pre-Neanderthal recent
The second stage is marked by the fossils of Swanscombe ( England ), Steinheim (Germany) or the Sima de los Huesos at Atapuerca ( Spain ).
Distribution map of main sites have yielded remains of classic Neanderthals
The ancient Neanderthals
The oldest fossil Neanderthals undoubtedly have ages ranging between - 250 000 - 110 000 years. Among them include the skull Biache-Saint-Vaast ( Pas-de-Calais ), 180 000 years old , the remnants of the chair Vouthon ( Charente ), the mandible Montmaurin ( Haute-Garonne ), the skulls of Saccopastore near Rome in Italy or the many remnants of Krapina in Croatia.
The classic Neanderthals
Neanderthals most typical, which derived characters are greatest, have ages ranging between - 100 and 000 years - 28 000 years, the date of their disappearance.
Among the classic Neanderthal fossils, besides the remains of Neanderthal same (approx. 42 000 years), we must mention the skeletons of La Chapelle-aux-Saints , from Moustier , of The Ferrassie , from La Quina , of a href = "% C3% Saint-C A9saire_ (Charente-Maritime)" title = "Saint-Csaire (Charente-Maritime)"> Saint-Csaire in southwestern of France or Spy in Belgium to name only the most complete.
The last known Neanderthals were discovered including Portugal , in Spain ( Zafarraya , 30,000 years ), in Croatia (Vindija - 32 000 years , ) and the North -Western Caucasus (Mezmaiskaya - 29 000 years). All dates are to be considered with caution, subsequent revaluations tend to age them.
Research conducted from 1999 to 2005 in Gorham's Cave on Gibraltar suggest that Neanderthals lived there until - 28 000 years, even - 24 000 years , . They would therefore have long coexisted with anatomically modern humans , present in the area since 32 000 years. These results are however strongly criticized, for example by Joao Zilhao of the University of Bristol.
Physical characteristics
Skeleton
Comparison of skulls of
Homo sapiens (left) and Homo neanderthalensis (right)
Main features of the skull of Homo neanderthalensis
Neanderthals are often very corpulent and robust mass: 90 kg and 1.65 m on average for males and 70 kg and 1.55 m for females (individuals had reached 1.90 m). All of their structure and muscle attachments suggests great physical strength.
Neanderthals are a few archaic characteristics inherited from their predecessor (characters plesiomorphic ) and advanced characters (characters apomorphic ). The characters evolved can be shared with Homo sapiens (characters synapomorphic ) or be specific derived characters (characters autapomorphies ). Only the latter can identify the species when examining a fossil.
- Plesiomorphic characters of Neanderthals are:
- the presence of a thickened bone above the orbits (called supraorbital rim );
- a receding forehead;
- the lack of chin.
- Synapomorphic traits of Neanderthals are:
- large brains (their average cranial capacity is slightly higher (1500 cc) to that of modern humans);
- molars with reduced dimensions, as in Homo sapiens.
- The characters are autapomorphies of the Neanderthals:
- a long face, special shape;
- high orbits and rounded;
- a wide nasal cavity;
- dental arch and a developed nose;
- cheekbones back;
- the external ear hole is oval and place in the wake of the root of the arch zygomatic (below in Homo sapiens ). It is closed by a tympanic gable.
- the presence of a space between the back teeth of the ramus of the mandible, said "retromolar space;
- a skull in a circular profile in posterior view (while the head of all other hominids has a pentagonal profile);
- an occipital bone forming a kind of bun and having a pit in its center, called pit above iniaque.
Traits specific to Neanderthals have often been presented as adaptations to cold. This is partly true and short limbs and robust Neanderthals are modern analogues in populations living in areas near the pole. But the climate is not sufficient to explain the evolution and ecological factors such as isolation and low population genetic mixing associated with glacial advances have also had to intervene.
pigmentation and hair color
The freckles of Neanderthals was raised as a result of various studies but it appears to be over-interpretations of scientific results from the media. In humans, the freckle is caused by a mutation of the gene MC1R (melanocortin-1 receptor) that regulates melanin production . In 2000, a study has shown that this mutation could have existed 100 000 years . Some have concluded that it could have appeared among the Neanderthals who allegedly passed on to modern humans , which qualifies the authors .
In October 2007, an article in the journal Science present results of a study on the extraction of DNA from fossilized Neanderthal two specimens, one found in Italy (Monti Lessini) and one in Spain (El Sidrn 1252) . We have amplified and sequenced a fragment of the MC1R gene and have demonstrated in both mutation unknown individuals in modern humans. However, it is impossible to determine whether this mutation was present on both alleles and thus whether it affected the phenotype of the individuals concerned. For authors, the presence of these mutations to estimate a percent of Neanderthals were reduced pigmentation resulting in white skin and red hair . While this proportion is very limited, some media reported that Neanderthals were red , .
Paleopathology
The skeletal remains of Neanderthals in Europe and western Asia, sometimes have abnormalities that provide information on organ damage occurred in their lifetime, and sometimes responsible for their deaths. These anomalies can be classified into four main categories :
Trauma
Neanderthals appear to have suffered frequent fractures , particularly at the ribs ( Shanidar IV, "old man" of La Chapelle-aux-Saints ), the femur ( the Ferrassie 1), fibula (The Ferrassie 2 and Tabun 1), of the spine ( Kebara 2 ) and skull (Shanidar I, Krapina , Sala 1). These fractures are often rewelded and show little or no signs of infection , suggesting that individuals were supported during their period of disability.
In connection with fractures, other traces of injuries have been reported on many skeletons of Neanderthals. They seem related perforating injury, as in Shanidar III, whose lung was punctured by an injury doubt between ribs 8 and 9. It may be an intentional attack or a hunting accident, but the individual survived the injury for several weeks before being killed by a falling boulder in the cave of Shanidar. Other injuries consistent with blows to the head (Shanidar I and IV, Krapina), all bound , .
Pathology articular
The arthritis is especially common among older Neanderthals. It relates specifically joints like ankles (Shanidar III), spine and hips ("old man" of La Chapelle-aux-Saints , ), arms (La Quina 5, Krapina, Feldhof), knees, fingers and toes. The very close relationship with degenerative joint disease ( osteoarthritis ), which can range from normal degeneration, related to wear, to restriction of movements, painful and debilitating, and deformation. This is observed to varying degrees on the Shanidar skeletons (I-IV).
Dental Pathology
The hypoplasia of tooth enamel is an indicator of stress occurred during the development of teeth. The striations and grooves of the enamel reflect the periods of food scarcity, trauma or disease. A study of 669 Neanderthal dental crowns showed signs of hypoplasia more or less pronounced on 75% of them . Nutritional deficiencies were the main cause, which may even lead to tooth loss. Teeth belonging to the older skeletons exhibited all hypoplasia, particularly marked in the "old man" of La Chapelle-aux-Saints and La Ferrassie individual 1.
Infectious diseases
Occasionally found on the skeletons of Neanderthal bone lesions associated with secondary infection of the soft tissues of the neighborhood. Shanidar I shows clear signs of degenerative changes along the Ferrassie 1, where the lesions in both femurs, tibias and fibulae indicate a systemic infection or perhaps cancer.
Language ,
The physical ability to articulate speech of Neanderthals has long been controversial. The discussion focuses on the physical fitness of Neanderthals language, for which the morphology of the hyoid bone is important. The hyoid bone is a small bone that holds the base of the tongue. It is present in all mammals, but in the human lineage, its morphology is critical for the ability to speech. Very little Neanderthal hyoid bones were unearthed: one was discovered in 1983 Kebara on Mount Caramel in Israel (60 ka) and another site in the El Sidrn Spain (43 ka). The two bones are not very different from those of modern humans . Hyoid bones belonging to pre-Neanderthals were discovered at the site of the Sima de los Huesos at Atapuerca in Spain (at least 530 ka), they also have characteristics similar to that of Homo sapiens .
Even disregarding this argument, many researchers consider the complexity of the tooling Mousterian attributed to the Neanderthal is indirect evidence of cognitive abilities, including some form of spoken language.
On the vocal tract of Neanderthals, Philip Lieberman has maintained since 1971 that they lacked a pharynx of sufficient size to produce all the sounds that we observe in the world's languages. Despite much criticism of this argument, this theory has been widely circulated for thirty years. Following a long controversy , , , it seems that Lieberman's arguments are no longer tenable. Anatomical reconstruction of the vocal tract that was used was not realistic simulations and unconvincing. This is not the size of the pharynx, which can talk, but control of articulators ( vocal cords , tongue , jaw , palate , lips ). The new simulations show that Neanderthals had the physical ability to speak.
A study published in 2007 and on the analysis of DNA from the remains of two Neanderthals discovered at El Sidrn (Spain) would have to detect the same version of the gene FOXP2 (en) (forkhead box P2 ) than that present in modern humans . This could argue for the ability of Neanderthals to the language since it is estimated that this gene plays an important role in developing parts of the brain associated with control of articulated speech.
Culture and technology
Cores and Levallois flint brilliance of Haute-Sane
Having long been considered an archaic and still be close to the animal, including some of the scientific community, the Neanderthals began to appear as a being endowed with intellectual and cultural traditions.
Artisan Stone
He is the author of a complex and sophisticated equipment, including industries of Mousterian. His methods of debitage provide further evidence of his capacity for abstraction and anticipation, especially as regards the Levallois. The fragments obtained by this method or others could be used raw or retouched, altered slightly at their edges to obtain more specialized tools such as scrapers or denticulate.
Direct evidence (traces of adhesive natural bitumen or resin) or indirect (distribution of traces of use) show that some tools were used hafted. The sleeves themselves, made of perishable materials, have not been preserved. However, particularly favorable conditions have allowed the preservation of some wooden objects. The most spectacular is undoubtedly a fragment spear in if stuck in the chest of an elephant unearthed in Lehringen ( Lower Saxony ). In the same site, were found fragments Levallois used to cut the skin and meat.
It is likely that the last Neanderthals are the authors of Chtelperronian a cultural facies transition between the Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic in western Europe. This facies is characterized by behaviors long considered unique to modern humans: cutting blades, use of ornament, making bone tools, etc.. ,
A great hunter
Few direct evidence of the practice of hunting by large herbivores such as Neanderthals fragment spear in yew of Lehringen. However, the sites deliver impressive accumulations of bones of large bovids ( Bison to Coudoulous , Lot and Mauran , Haute-Garonne ; Aurochs at La Borde , Lot ) interpreted as the result of seasonal hunts, sometimes with the use of sinkholes as natural traps. The practical point of scavenging active (primary access to the carcass by removing predators or searching for dead animals in traps and natural) was also discussed.
Food
Previous research considered that the Neanderthals were primarily carnivorous hunters (hunting mainly of large herbivores, so that Homo sapiens had diversified its food - small game, seafood , freshwater fish and seafood), this diet is different considered one of the causes of their extinction . Recent studies in 2010 were analyzed at several sites of phytoliths trapped in patches of fossilized Neanderthal teeth of calculus: it shows traces of fossilized plants ( date palm , vegetables, water lily rhizomes, grasses of the genus Triticum or Hordeum), indicating a diet too diverse and behavior of hunter-gatherer. In addition, some starch grains recovered show cooking process, suggesting that Neanderthals, with their mastery of fire, these plants were cooked by boiling. Indeed, it was previously thought that only the meats were cooked (according to the analysis of animal bones found in many homes) while the plants were simply grilled .
Graves
The Neanderthal man nicknamed Moshe unearthed in the
cave Kebara If it is possible that Homo heidelbergensis , an ancestor probable Neanderthal Man, has adopted a particular behavior vis--vis its dead Atapuerca , the first true Neanderthal burials are known. The earliest date from approximately - 100 000 years were unearthed in the Middle East. Then they multiply and can be found in France ( La Chapelle-aux-Saints , The Ferrassie , La Quina , Le Moustier , Saint-Csaire ), Belgium ( Spy ), Israel ( Kebara , Amud ), the Kurdistan Iraq ( Shanidar ), in Uzbekistan ( Teshik-Tash ). In some cases, they include funerary deposits (stone tools, fragments of wildlife).
One of the graves contained a Shanidar Neanderthals buried under a large slab. A large quantity of pollen of flowering plants was present around the body , . These pollen have long been regarded as proof of filing numerous flowers during the burial. This interpretation is now questioned, post-depositional phenomena or action of rodents that may have contributed to the accumulation of pollen .
These graves include intentional and often pits are almost always associated habitats. It is unlikely to have had a functional role for simply getting rid of a corpse, even if their interpretation in terms of religiosity is debatable.
Cult of the Bear
In some sites such as the Regourdou in Dordogne, accumulations of skulls of bears who seemed willing intentionally have been interpreted as the result of a "cult of the bear."
Regourdou to a skeleton of brown bear sitting under a stone monolith with a weight of 850 kg, in a shallow grave. Nearby, the body of a Neanderthal was lying on his left side, head north in a fetal position. The skull was missing, but there remained the mandible. The absence of the skull was also observed in the case of the burial of Neanderthal Kebara. According to E. Bonifay, it was a real tomb consists of a paved ditch, paved and covered with sand and bottom ash , . This interpretation has been widely questioned since then, accumulations of bones bear the Regourdou possibly related to phenomena taphonomic related to the occupation of the cave by bears hibernating .
More generally, the existence of the cult of the bear, raised recently by the writer Jean M. Auel , is now disputed by many scientists. The skulls of bears are extremely resistant and can be displaced by natural phenomena to acquire positions suggesting a voluntary organization but in fact only due to chance .
Cannibalism
The presence of traces of disarticulation of emaciation, fracturing or intentional ignition of some bones of Neanderthals has been interpreted as evidence of the practice of cannibalism. Bones from sites such as the Abri Moula , in Ardche or Krapina , , in Croatia show such traces of cutting. It is difficult to prove the case of cannibalism rather than a post mortem of the remains as part of a funeral rite. The bone fragments from Krapina show marks similar to those of a secondary burial necropolis of the XIV century discovered in Michigan , corresponding to the removal of flesh on a partially decomposed body. Some cranial bones at the site of Pradelles Marillac-le-Franc show signs of cutting probably corresponding to the removal of scalp scalpation.
The Neanderthal skull discovered in the cave Guattari ( Circeo , Italy ) has long been regarded as irrefutable evidence of ritual cannibalism: it would have been deposited in a stone circle after the foramen magnum had been expanded to consume the brain. Thorough investigations have shown that the stone circle was probably natural that the enlargement of the foramen magnum was caused by a hyena , which confirms the presence of teeth marks in different parts of the skull , .
The birth of art
Statement of the zigzag pattern etched on a bone found in the Middle Paleolithic site of Bacho Kiro in Bulgaria
In Middle Paleolithic also appear the first signs of symbolic or aesthetic concerns:
- collection of fossils and rare minerals;
- Use of tan (although in some cases functional uses may be mentioned) ;
- burning features, lines or simple geometric signs on bones or stones , .
This recognition of Neanderthal culture challenges the cultural primacy of the modern man : while it was thought that there is little technical and symbolic culture of Neanderthals was markedly less quantitatively and qualitatively to that of Homo sapiens , Recent discoveries show that Neanderthals had also developed some advanced techniques ( cutting blades ) or adopted modern cultural traits (Graves, engraved signs). The thesis of the role of the arrival of Homo sapiens in Europe and that a correlation between biological evolution and cultural evolution to explain the greater development of Homo sapiens by his biological evolution are thereby therefore called into question ...
Extinction
Neanderthals disappear there are about 29 000 years, still partly unexplained disappearance and leads to many assumptions , , , which sometimes involve mathematical models or economic more or less unusual. Archaeological data show that there was no mass extinction but rather a gradual disappearance.
The disappearance of Neanderthals apparently coincides with the arrival of groups of anatomically modern humans who left the Middle East for Europe , there are about 40 000 years, probably thanks to a temperate climatic episode of the last glaciation. These modern men, sometimes called Cro-Magnon ", are bearers of a new material culture, called Aurignacian and characterized by the spread of knapping and lamellar, the use of soft hammer to these debitage, the manufacture of tools made of hard animal (including spearheads bone). The men of the Aurignacian are also the authors of the oldest works of wall art and furniture in Europe.
The Neanderthals and modern humans probably lived together for a few millennia, although no direct evidence of interaction has been discovered.
Assumptions abandoned or implausible
No one was even more the following explanation which modern man is simply a descendant of the Neanderthals. This theory was, however, this is less than half a century, yet passionately defended by Camille Arambourg , member of the Institute and director of the Institute of Human Paleontology in Paris, for whom those who did not recognize the obvious This solution clearly obeyed with arcane metaphysics: "The naive and pitiable human vanity refuses to admit that the" king of creation "has the Neanderthal ancestor, yet so close to the animal, in which we would like s 'try to see a branch "off" or even "degenerate", unrelated to Homo sapiens . "
Other hypotheses have few supporters:
- Linked to the disappearance of Neanderthals adjustment difficulties facing environmental change (disappearance of game, climatic changes, etc.).
- Food poisoning by toxic (poisonous fungi or yeasts, metal salts of lead, copper, arsenic ...).
- Problems gene associated with high inbreeding and / or spontaneous mutations causing congenital diseases such as the hemophilia , the insulin-dependent diabetes or some form of infertility , have sufficiently affected the demographics of the population to make it disappear.
- Nutritional deficiencies including vitamin (A, B6 or B12, E, F, etc..) salts or minerals (iodide, iodate, ferric ...) due to a diet mainly meat, causing a progressively high mortality rate not compensated by reproduction.
All these assumptions are unlikely to scale of a continental population, and difficult to reconcile with the long history of Neanderthals (nearly 200 000 years) and their adaptability to diverse climatic and environmental conditions and changing .
- Mismatch between population dynamics of the two respective populations, the Neanderthals had slightly fewer children than the female Homo sapiens demographic factors are still very difficult to grasp for prehistoric populations. Furthermore, this assumption is ultimately that of a competition with the species Homo sapiens.
Assumptions under consideration
Extinction of an infectious
Outbreak linked to infection virus ( hemorrhagic fever ) or bacterial (equivalent of leprosy , of fever ...) or parasitic ( malaria ) have decimated the population preferentially Neanderthal: this hypothesis is plausible insofar as groups of modern humans may have make epidemics of tropical origin that they were resistant, but the time of cohabitation (12000 years) seems too long for an outbreak.
Extinction by hybridization sterility
Gradual disappearance of the Neanderthal population linked to the possibility of fertile matings, but giving sterile hybrids, at least among Neanderthals: hypothesis by Finnish paleontologist Bjrn Kurtn , difficult to test.
Extinction violent related to Homo sapiens
Disappearance of Neanderthals linked to the arrival of modern humans and competition for land resource development , even their physical elimination by modern humans, by violent conflict on the contact areas and reduction of Neanderthal territories: the hypothesis is based in particular on the correlation of periods of expansion of Homo sapiens with the disappearance / Sup>. It is disputed because of the absence of traces of violent deaths or signs of prolonged cohabitation in the same area .
Merger with partial genetic Homo sapiens
The dissolution of the Neanderthal population in the population Homo sapiens by fertile mating is one of the hypotheses to explain her disappearance.
Presentation of the debate
A skeleton of a child found in Portugal was presented as a hybrid Neanderthal / sapiens, implying that the genetic makeup of Neanderthals may have contributed to the genetic heritage of modern man. This hypothesis is hotly debated because of the difficulties to demonstrate the veracity of hybridization in an individual child, whereas the variability of the population is poorly known . Moreover, genetic studies on this subject resulted in conflicting results: some authors, there is no evidence of contribution of Neanderthals to the mitochondrial DNA of early modern humans while for others genes of Homo sapiens are not exclusively African origin , and the Neanderthal genome could account for 5% of that of modern humans . A study by the University of Chicago identified a gene linked to brain growth that would have been transmitted to humans from Neanderthals, which is present in 70% of modern humans .
In 2010, DNA sequencing of Neanderthals
A team from the Max Planck Institute in Leipzig , , led by Svante Pbo , a sequenced nuclear DNA from fossil bones of Neanderthals. The comparison with the same sequences of modern humans shows that 1-4% of DNA is common to Neanderthals and Homo sapiens but not African Eurasian and these crosses may have occurred there are 150 000 to 80 000 years in Middle East . One hypothesis of the authors in their study published in May 2010, is that Neanderthals contributed to the genome of populations of modern humans outside Africa, but other hypotheses also explain the data properly (see above ). The deciphering of the DNA of Homo sapiens Archaic (c. - 100 000 years), currently underway, will perhaps decide. In 2010, the sequencing 63% of the genome of Neanderthals has identified 20 genetic regions specific to the modern man.
In literature
- The Clan of the Cave Bear, 1980, Jean M. Auel , translated into French, first as Ayla, a child of the Earth and then later under the title The Clan of the Cave Bear.
- The adventures of Ayla, a Cro-Magnon girl orphan gathered around the age of five years by a tribe of Neanderthals.
- Neanderthal - Their Time Has Come, 1996 by John Darton.
- Recounting a meeting between modern humans and Neanderthals survived until today.
- Hominids - The Neanderthal Parallax, 2002 by Robert J. Sawyer.
- Story of an imaginary world where the roles of Homo sapiens and Neanderthals are reversed.
- The Children of Time (in) , 2006 to Isaac Asimov & Robert Silverberg.
- The story of a Neanderthal child, back in modern times to be studied. A scientific and philosophical tale.
- Philip Jose Farmer in his cycle of novels The River of Eternity , features a Neanderthal named Kazz, as a character in the background.
In film
References
- a , b and c Richard E. Green et al. (2010) "A draft sequence Neanderthal genome Of The" , Science , Vol. 328. no. 5979, pp. 710-722.
- Science, Comparative Genomics: the Neanderthal Genome
- Welcome to the family, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis , New Scientist]
- Groenen, M. For a history of prehistory, ed. J. Millon (1994) ( ISBN 2-905614-93-5 )
- Trinkaus, E. and Shipman, P. The Neanderthals, Seuil, (1996) ( ISBN 2020131781 )
- Fuhlrott, CJ (1859) - "aus einer menschliche Ueberreste Felsengrotte of Dsselthals. Ein Beitrag zur Frage ber die Existenz fossil Menschen, Verhandl. Naturhist. Ver. Preuss. Rheinland Westphalen, 16, p. 131-153.
- Fuhlrott, CJ (1865) - Der Mensch aus dem Neanderthal fossil und sein zum Alter Verhltni Menschengeschlechts of Duisburg, 78 S. 2 Abb.
- Schaaffhausen, H. (1858) - "Zur ltesten der Kentniss Rassenschdel" Archiv Verdinbung Mehrereh Gelehrten, p. 453-488.
- King, W. (1864) - "The Man Of The reputed Neanderthal fossil," Quarterly Journal of Science, Vol. 1, p. 88-97.
- Ball, M. (1911-1913) - "The fossil man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints", Journal of Paleontology, v. VI-VII-VIII.
- Krings, M., Stone A., Schmitz, RW., Krainitzki, H., Stoneking, M., et al. (1997) "Neanderthal DNA sequences and the Origin of Modern Humans," Cell, 90, p. 19-30.
- D. Serre, A. Langaney, M. Chech, M. Teschler-Nicola, M. Paunovic, P. Mennecier, M. Hofreiter, G. Possnert, S. Pbo, (2004), "No evidence of Neandertal mtDNA Contribution to Early Modern Humans" PLoS Biology Vol. 2, No. 3
- Zilho, J. and Trinkaus, E. (2002), Portrait of the Artist as a Child. The Gravettian Human Skeleton from Abrigo do Lagar Velho The and Its Archeological Context, Trabalhos de Arqueologia, Vol. 22, 609 p.
- Plagnol V., Wall JD (2006), " Possible ancestral structure in human populations , PLoS Genetics , 2: E105; quote: .. strong evidence for ancient admixtures in European and Botha has West African population (p 10 -7), With Contributions to the modern gene pool of at least 5%. While Neanderthals form Obvious year archaic source population candidate in Europe ..
- Duarte, C., Maurcio, J., Pettitt, PB, Souto P., Trinkaus, E., van der Plicht, H. and Zilho, J. (1999), " The early Upper Paleolithic human skeleton from Abrigo do Lagar Velho The (Portugal) and modern human emergence in Iberia , "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 96, No. 13, pp. 7604-7609, quote: See also
Bibliography
- Juan Luis Arsuaga , The Neanderthal's Necklace, Odile Jacob, 2004 ( ISBN 2-73811422-9 )
- Claudia Cohen, a Neanderthal in the metro al. Open science, Seuil, 2007 ( ISBN 2-02-0925575 )
- collective, Neanderthal, investigating a disappearance, The Records Research No. 24, August-October 2006
- collective Neandertal Tallandier, 2006, ( ISBN 978-284734-366-3 )
- Jean-Jacques Hublin, "Origin and evolution of Neanderthals," in Y. Coppens and P. Picq (ed.), The Origins of Humanity, Fayard, 2001 ( ISBN 2-213-60369-3 ), vol. 1
- Jacques Jaubert, hunters and craftsmen of the Mousterian, La Maison des Roches, 1999 ( ISBN 2-912691-05-2 )
- Bruno Maureillas, Early Graves, Le Pommier / Cit des Sciences and Industry, 2004 ( ISBN 2-7465-0203-8 )
- Bruno Maureillas, What happened to the Neanderthals?, Et al. Small apple of knowledge, apple, 2008, ( ISBN 978-2-7465-0389-2 )
- Etienne Patte , The Neanderthals - Anatomy, Physiology, comparisons, Paris, Masson, 1955.
- Eric Trinkaus and Pat Shipman, The Neanderthals, Seuil, 1996 ( ISBN 2-02-013178-1 )
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Filmography
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