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Michael Viii Palaeologus

Michael VIII Palaeologus ( Greek : ) (c. 1224 - 11 December 1282 ) is an Emperor Byzantine of the thirteenth century prevailing between 1261 and 1282.

Michael VIII Emperor of Nicaea from 1258 to 1261, then Byzantine emperor from 1261 to 1282. It usurps the throne of Nicaea in legitimate sovereign John IV Lascaris. His stay in power is often considered the last great reign of the Byzantine Empire. It takes Constantinople and renews the Imperial City. Then, through skillful diplomacy, he avoided a crusade against Romania (another name for the Byzantine Empire at the time). It also uses much more diplomacy to resolve its disputes that the hard way like the Sicilian Vespers, which is an important triggering factor but which does not participate directly.

However Michael VIII commits several errors, such as by removing the settlers on the border with Turkey to spare Finance Byzantine already hard-pressed point an additional expense. Within the Empire, Constantinople but it certainly helps renovate by returning the patriarch Arsene to create a serious religious crisis that continues long after the death of both protagonists. Furthermore, its alliance with Genoa , which yields to the Italian city of great commercial privileges in the empire, prevented the economic recovery and thus contribute to the future fall of the Byzantine Empire.

The Byzantine Empire under Michael VIII in 1265.

Summary

/ / Origin of the Family and Education

Michael VIII was the son of General Andronicus Ducas Palaiologos and Theodora. Born into an illustrious family, descendants of the Comnenus (Doukas and Angel), Michael is part of the Byzantine aristocracy and educated at the court of John III Doukas Vatatzes. Brilliant general, it is still imprisoned in 1253 in a prison of Nicaea by the Byzantine Emperor John III, who accuses him of conspiracy. It is really a misunderstanding and the following year, Jean releases and named Grand Constable (he is the requirement that all Italian merchants in the territory of the Empire) Usurpation

Hyperprion Representative Michael VIII Palaeologus to the left rear, left Christ and the Archangel Michael on the right.

On 18 August 1258 , at the death of Theodore, George Muzalon regent. John IV, son of the late Emperor, is still too young. However, the regent, knowing unpopular attempts to appoint another person as such but the nobility of the Empire confirmed in his post . Nine days later, while at Magnesia are celebrated the funeral of the late emperor, French mercenaries enter the church and kill Muzalon George and his brothers . Acropolita George believes that the nobles fell into disgrace when previous reign were guilty. But it seems more likely that the real instigator of this operation is Michael Palaeologus . Indeed, it seems to be the leader of the mercenaries and it is clear that it was shortly after the death of the regent it starts to become an important figure in the politics of the empire of Nicaea. Shortly after the murder of the regent, Michael VIII is released and the high dignitaries of the state are obliged to appoint a new regent. It was Michel who wins the popular vote with more than the title of Grand Duke . The new regent obtained in addition to meeting the opportunity to pick his way into the coffers of the Empire. Continuing his ascent, Michael Palaeologus end up with the title of despot , the highest in the Byzantine hierarchy. With as much power as an emperor he nevertheless wishes to take the attributes and can convince the patriarch Arsene Autoriannos (guardian of the young John IV) of the crowned Emperor with the young emperor to preserve the throne of the son of Theodore II.

On 1 December 1258 , Michel became officially the new emperor of Nicaea under the name of Michael VIII and the January 1 next year was crowned emperor jointly with his wife and John IV of Nicaea in the cathedral by Patriarch Arsene . However, John IV Lascaris is relegated to a castle of Bosphorus. The patriarch, realizing that he was wrong, decided to retire to a monastery. He was replaced against the advice of senior church officials by the Metropolitan of Ephesus , Nicephorus .

Reclaiming

Fight against the Franks and despotate Epirus

Since its advent Michael VIII must struggle against the Frankish states. The Latin Empire of Constantinople after losing Thrace , a large part of Macedonia and Thessaloniki is no longer a major threat. Michael VIII sign peace with Baldwin II of Courtenay . However, it must soon fight against a tougher foe: the despot of Epirus Michael II Doukas which takes up the Macedonian Vardar and form a coalition of Manfred I of Sicily as well as William II of Villehardouin. Michael VIII acted promptly and sent his brother, sbastokrator John Palaeologus , Greece with an army. From there, he managed to defeat the army of the despot to Edessa. Continuing to rise, the brother of the Emperor takes Ohrid. Eager for revenge, Michael II gathers his army with that of William of Villehardouin and knights Sicilian Manfred. However they are once again beaten to the Battle of Pelagonia and the Prince of Morea is captured. Following this, John Palaeologus occupies Arta , the capital of the despot, and leads an expedition in Greece until Thebes . The despot, however, soon recovered much of the lost territory and captured the Byzantine general Alexius Strategopoulos. The latter was issued after an agreement between Michael VIII and Michael II .

These events allow Michael Palaeologus to pacify his possessions in Europe. To take Constantinople , he signed a treaty with the Mongols, which allows it to consolidate its positions in Asia, leaving his former de facto ally, the Sultan of Iconium . The emperor also sign a treaty with the Emperor of Trebizond Comnenus Manuel to ensure the support of most of the Hellenic forces .

Constantinople: the dream of the emperors of Nicaea

Since the fall of Constantinople in 1204, the emperors of Nicaea desperate to resume the imperial city. Oil Eugene Delacroix (1840)

Since the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders and especially the Franks and the Latins and the creation of the empire of Nicaea in 1204 , the purpose of the Byzantine emperors is clearly getting his hands on the former capital. Nice is only a refuge, a respite for the Byzantine Empire injured but not dead. All the predecessors of Michel tried to recover Constantinople or at least get closer gradually. At first the Roman emperors resisted, wanting to use them to Constantinople as an outpost for a future crusade against the Turks and larger scale against Muslims and practitioners to get closer to the Greek rite for little little, willingly or unwillingly, they do admit the Latin rite. For their part, the Venetians want to acquire land to expand their trade. But the Latin Empire of Constantinople can never fulfill its mission due in particular to the absence of reinforcements, clear divisions of the principal chiefs and the hostility of the inhabitants. The first touchdown was the Latin Empire, which, on the eve of the conquest of Byzantine ruins, stripped of troops, dispossessed of land in 1204 and abandoned by his allies with the notable exception of Venice.

The recovery of Constantinople

Michael VIII represented with Christ on a hyperprion celebrating the recovery of Constantinople

Aware that he must be careful, Michael VIII secure its borders before planning the restoration of his empire. Campaigning for the first time in 1260 , he stopped at Selymbria he can take. ANSEAU Toucy, captured at the Battle of Pelagonia and released in exchange for opening a door of the city does not keep his promise . Michael Palaeologus campaign stops there and he leaves at Nicaea. This expedition draws the attention of the Genoese and they send an embassy in Nymph. The reason for sending it: the Genoese after the fall of Constantinople in 1204 , are deprived of their benefits and their land to the detriment of the Venetians; Genoa can then run as piracy raids against the Venetian possessions. Michel, who knows the potential of the marine sponge (which itself has virtually no navy) accepts all requests from Genoese and indenture a treaty is signed in Nymphaeum on 13 March 1261 whereby both signatories commit themselves to form a Baldwin II alliance against Venice. In addition to the main clause, the Genoese must make available their fleet Byzantines. For their part, the Byzantines, following the capture of Constantinople, Genoa undertake to give the benefits enjoyed by Venetians, Constantinople should contain a Genoese quarter and they could trade freely on Byzantine territory . Economic monopoly of Venice would be replaced by that of Genoa.

Everything is ready for the reconquest of Constantinople, but this does not happen as the two allies have planned. Alexis is in general Stratgopoulos have the burden to conquer the city. Posted on the Bulgarian border with 800 men, he goes to Constantinople to watch without having to take it as a goal. However, the situation will turn to its advantage, a patrol is sent around the imperial city and it agreeing with the people is to open the doors. Alexis Strategopoulos has the privilege of returning the first to Constantinople on 25 July 1261 . Before the speed of events, Baldwin II fled by boat, while a few days later, a Venetian fleet from the Black Sea can only stand idly by fait accompli . Constantinople was finally taken, the emperors after 57 years in exile at Nicaea sit again in the Imperial City.

Measurements Home

Renovation of Constantinople

The imperial banner of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaeologus.

Upon his arrival at Constantinople, Michael VIII is crowned emperor in Hagia Sophia by Arsene he recalled from his exile. The emperor's court carries Palace Blachernae to the Sacred Palace , former residence of the Byzantine emperors. Shortly after Michael VIII realizes he must take emergency measures. Indeed, the Byzantine Empire and Constantinople in particular is in a state of advanced ruin. The imperial city was abandoned to its fate for nearly 60 years and the city is very deteriorated. The emperor rebuilt the dilapidated neighborhoods burned or heavily , it cleans the streets full of rubbish, rehabilitates the city walls and built a fleet of war . It benefits from the installation of a group Tzakoniens from the Morea and which constitute the bulk of the crew of the future fleet . The rowers are in turn descended from Greco-Roman marriages called pejoratively the Gasmules by the Byzantines. The fleet moved to the old port Kontoskalion rehabilitated. As promised in the agreement Nymph, he built a Genoese quarter and filled with the inhabitants of the suburbs of Constantinople the Venetian quarter dropped. It also provides for the restoration of Orthodox churches and monasteries, to revive the religious consciousness of its people and revive the spirit of patriotism. Michel also attacks to promote art with the creation of frescoes, icons of which were destroyed during the occupation some Latin

. This renewed interest in art can be seen until the fall of Constantinople.

Religious Crisis

However, Michael VIII knows he is perceived by the population of the Empire as a usurper, as he hastened to put out the eyes to the young John IV in 1261 to deny him any claim to the throne and relegated to a fortress under house arrest. He also mutilates his secretary Manuel Holobolos which showed a little sorry for the young victim . The objective is clear Michel, denying all claims Lascaris to the imperial throne. For this, he also tries to discredit them. Thus the new history of the empire she has the sovereign Lascaris as mere regional unimportant Moreover, the emperor trying to establish an alliance with Manfred of Sicily asked the hand of his daughter Constance, widow of John III Vatatzes . During these five years (between 1261 and 1266), Michael VIII is ostracized from the religious community of the Empire and can not enter the religious buildings, including Hagia Sophia.

Meanwhile, Arsene retains many supporters, particularly in Asia Minor . In this region, led for half a century by the emperors of Nicaea, the Lascaris retains many supporters. Number of religious figures oppose the impeachment of Arsene but also to that of Germain III. This opposition movement, whose members call themselves arsenite is causing a schism deep within the Church but also of Byzantine society .

Internal Administration

Unlike his predecessors, Michael organizes the administration of the empire in favor of the nobility. Priced at weddings and gifts, he managed to ally most of the great families of the Empire. It also strives to give family members of important positions, like his brother John, who led most of the campaigns. When his son Andronicus II reached its 16 years, he married and associates to the throne. Consequence of these donations and maintenance of his army, he dies leaving a vacuum Imperial Treasury . Thus, for the renovation of the Byzantine Empire, he was forced to devalue the hyperprion, Byzantine currency. This policy initiates the movement of currency devaluation faced by the Byzantine throughout the fourteenth century . In addition, the Genoese enjoy the monopoly of trade throughout the Empire and the de facto deprive the key resources that could restore its greatness. One example is Manuel Zaccaria, Genoese merchant who obtains a monopoly on the trade of alum . Despite the Genoese, Venice and Pisa , two other Italian republics still enjoy substantial benefits. To cope with bankruptcy, Michel waives expel the Venetians from Constantinople, and each of the three Italian colonies headed by its own laws guaranteed by an officer appointed by the Metropolis (a lease for the Venetians, the Genoese to a Podesta and a consul for Pisa) .

Attempted Union between the two Churches

Once the reconquest of Constantinople, Michael VIII tries to restore good relations with the papacy to avoid any risk of a new crusade against the Empire. So he tries to sign the union of the two churches to save Constantinople as do most of its successors . In addition, he has to fight against Charles of Anjou king of Sicily, which had as a project to take Constantinople and all those whose actions and gestures are closely linked with its relations with the pope.

Relations with changing the pope and the Frankish states in Greece

Urban IV, whose relations are in flux with Michael VIII

Upon his arrival in power, as Michael VIII had intended to prevent a crusade against the Empire and regain a foothold in most regions of the Balkans and in Greece. To recover this region, he must fight against the prince of Morea. It does that forcing Villehardouin William II , who was taken prisoner at the Battle of Pelagonia to sign a treaty ( 1262 ). William became the vassal of the Empire and must report to him the fortresses of Mistra , Geraki and Monemvasia. Michel gives the administration of these three fortresses to his half-brother Constantine. The emperor resumed and gradually established in Greece. However William of Villehardouin soon to foment an alliance against the Byzantine Empire, the pope has previously released from his commitments deemed null and void as being intervened with a Greek schismatic . In response, the Latin Emperor plundered the islands and sent to the city of Constantine Sparta . The emperor, to avert the danger moves closer to Manfred, but he rejects the claims of Michael. So he decides to go to the pope to reconcile Greeks and Latins. Urban IV agrees. Indeed, he has expanded the applications of Baldwin II who wants to reconcile with Manfred. The latter having been excommunicated, the Pope can not accept to be the leader of a crusade. However, participation in the crusade of former Latin emperor seems essential. The Pope is therefore common ground with Michel. Thus begins the attempted union of two churches.

Pending the arrival of the papal legates, Michael VIII Constantine sends back a campaign against Andravida , the capital of the principality of Achaia. Sergiani however, the Byzantine army withdraws after the accidental death of one of his generals. Constantine fled and disappeared as a major figure in the empire. Shortly afterwards, the Byzantine army abandoned by its Turkish mercenaries is again beaten to Makryplagi , . This may leave room for truce talks to establish the Union. Urban whereas in fact it is impossible to negotiate with Michael as the latter struggle against the Frankish states in Greece. Urban then proposed to send four Franciscan monks to Constantinople to negotiate a possible Union. Similarly, in exchange for the withdrawal of the Byzantine provinces Frankish Pope would agree to recognize Michael as the real emperor of Constantinople Baldwin II instead of but Urban IV died on 2 October 1264.

At the same time, John, another brother of Michael performs better against the despotate of Epirus who eventually undergo after fierce fighting. The despot Michael gives in to the Empire city of Ioannina and accepts that his son married Anne Nicephorus Palaeologus, niece of Michael VIII.

Michael VIII worried by the Sicilians

Coin struck during the reign of Michael VIII Palaeologus. It represents the Virgin Mary and was made in commemoration of the recovery of Constantinople on the Latins.

The death of Urban IV Michael VIII significantly hampers its projects. Indeed, he was ready to conclude the Union of the two churches with the Pope. The emperor must wait for the 5 February 1265 to hear the new Pope Clement IV. He argues from his accession Charles of Anjou in his planned invasion of Sicily Manfred cons . After his victory at the Battle of Benevento where Manfred is killed, Michael VIII begins to worry. Indeed, Charles of Anjou as project conquest of Constantinople . The emperor tries to reconcile with the pope, but it does not . Indeed, the pope sees Charles of Anjou, the protector of the papacy and the sovereign Nor what was excommunicated Manfred. It's just it sends a letter to Michael VIII containing a profession of faith to which the Greeks were ordered to undergo . It's a disappointment for Michael who wishes to hold a council to discuss problematic issues between the two doctrines.

p> In turn Charles of Anjou, after his victory against the successor of Manfred, Corradino at the battle of Tagliacozzo , sets up a fleet for its future campaign against the Byzantine Empire. Furthermore he signed a treaty in Viterbo with Baldwin II in which he undertakes to make his throne in Constantinople . The emperor sends the king of France two embassies asking his brother to divert his attempt to conquer the Empire. Louis IX delegates the religious question to the council of cardinals who makes the same claims that Clement IV for the union, but Louis IX was able to bring Charles in his proposed crusade in Tunisia and King Louis IX is about to receive the second Byzantine embassy led by Jean Teccos when he died in Tunis from the plague. Charles of Anjou can again devote himself entirely to his invasion plan but on the way back to Sicily , a violent storm sank 18 of its vessels and a large part of his army. This event causes a suspension Michael VIII can be prepared for a new offensive by Charles of Anjou.

The Union

Gregory X, with whom Michael VIII enters into an ephemeral Union

The new pope, Gregory X was elected on 1September 1271. Upon his election, and while still at St. Jean d'Acre , he sends a letter of support and requests to Michael VIII to Charles of Anjou to stop its war plans against the empire . However, the King of Sicily continues its work and establish links with the Albanians who called King and sign an alliance with the prince of Achaia and with Bulgaria and Serbia (1272 - 1273 ). In addition, he managed to seize the city of Durazzo where the Albanian population proclaim King . To counter this threat, Michael Palaeologus alliance with the King of Castile Alfonso X the Wise , who is a fierce enemy of Charles of Anjou . But it was the pope who is a great help for the Empire: the latter, while he was still in Saint-Jean d'Acre, Michel announces he is quite willing to a proposed union between the two churches under three conditions: the acceptance by all the Greek clergy of the primacy of the pope, the ultimate appeal in religious affairs in Rome and in tribute to Pope public prayers . Therefore, Michael VIII began a major campaign to persuade the high authorities of the Byzantine Church to accept the proposals of the Pope. It shows that three conditions would never be met: the Pope would never come to Constantinople, then there would not have to pass before the Orthodox Church, no one would take the idea of a long journey to bring his appeal to Rome to pay homage to the pope in the public prayers would not alter the purity of the orthodox doctrine .

But the emperor met with strong resistance. To avoid failure in his attempt to unite the two Churches to Gregory X confirms that all the clergy agreed to these proposals. The emperor , meanwhile, is trying somehow to reconcile the Greek clergy, assuring him that the Union is the only chance to save Constantinople. His policy wins few clear successes, like Jean Veccos theologian who came to be convinced of the fact of the Union. But the patriarch Joseph remains adamant. Nevertheless, an embassy is there to ecumenical council of Lyons , represented notably by the former patriarch Germain, Georges Akropolits and Theophanes, Metropolitan of Nicaea . But to get to Rome and then to Lyon, the Byzantine embassy must pass through the territory of Charles of Anjou which is of course not agree to pass up. But he eventually gave in under pressure from the pope and the embassy arrived in Lyon. After being informed by the three ambassadors Byzantine acceptance by all the clergy of the Greek Pontifical condition, the Union was officially declared on the fourth section of the Council on 6 July 1274 .

A Fragile Union

The Union of the two churches fulfills a dream of two centuries of popes since the schism of 1054 , for Gregory X is a great victory that is growing prestige. But for the Byzantine Empire, the situation is different in every respect, the Byzantine dignitaries are fiercely against the Union , but this does not Michael VIII consecrated the union of the Churches 16 January 1276 in the chapel of the palace. On May 26 the same year he deposed the patriarch Joseph, anti-unionist, to replace Jean Vekkos , pro-unionist. The latter tries somehow to convince senior levels Byzantine but was only partly successful and opposition grows , particularly led by Gregory of Cyprus and several members of the family of Michael, whose sister Theophany Michael VIII that does not hesitate to imprison. However the positive aspect of the Union is the truce signed between the emperor and Charles of Anjou (October 1274 ).

Despite his problems, Michael Palaeologus continues to correspond with the pope and tries to establish with him a draft crusade meant driving the Turks of Asia Minor and recreate a Christian state in the Holy Land. But this project can not succeed because of the death of Gregory X on 10 January 1276.

The Union, an impossible goal?

The death of Gregory X is a blow to the livelihood of the Union and the papal succession is complex - three popes in two years from January 1276 to May 1278, all elected under the influence of Charles of Anjou and therefore more or less hostile to the Byzantine Empire. Nicolas III , elected in May 1278 , himself is hostile to the war plans of the King of Sicily. But he asked Michael VIII submission of all the clergy without exception Greek and especially the integration of the " filioque "in the Orthodox creed . The Pope is sending a legate to Constantinople. When he arrives, Jean Vekkos abdicates his position as patriarch for unclear reasons , perhaps because of the "filioque." This event is Michael VIII in trouble, he should indeed hide the legate of the defection of one of the staunchest defenders of the Union. Finally, Jean Vekkos agrees to return to his post. The emperor still manages to persuade the pope that he did his best for the Union to be accepted by all and asked the pope to act as Charles of Anjou halts its plans to invade the Byzantine Empire, as he believes it interferes with the proper conduct of the Union. But, again, the pope died on 22 August 1280.

Charles of Anjou, great enemy of Michael VIII was a major factor that led to the destruction of the Union of two churches

His successor, Martin IV is fully committed to the cause of Charles of Anjou. This election marks the end of the Union. Michael VIII can not accept other concessions for the good of the Union. Indeed, to try to accept the Union's Byzantine dignitaries and the general population, it behaves as an emperor cruel, piercing the eyes of most of the main opponents to the Union . Like most of his successors, Michael Palaeologus had attempted to unite the two Churches, he said, preventing the formation of a crusade against the Empire and to a greater extent in the cause against the Turks. But resentment between Greeks and Latins is too hard to accept the entire population of the empire the merits of the Union . It is impossible to change his mind a population by force and that the Palaeologus understand soon enough. More Michael VIII must oppose the popes who, except Gregory X, asking too much concessions to the empire. Not so the Union during the dynasty of Palaeologus in general and the reign of Michael VIII in particular has been able to establish a sustainable manner.

The policy of Michael VIII in the Balkans

In its policy Balkan , Michael VIII, despite his desire to regain a foothold on the peninsula, has no overview and lack of military means, he spends most of his time on the defensive . Proceeds by the emperor as minor attacks against the Prince of Morea. By cons, facing despotate of Epirus , the situation is different. On the death of Michael II , Michael VIII attempts to engage the services of John the Angel who received Thessaly inheritance, through the present , inviting him to Constantinople with great pomp. Despite this, the prince of Thessaly rest against the Byzantine Empire. But by welcoming the anti-unionist, John Angel goes too far and Michael Palaeologus launched an operation during which he invaded Thessaly and captures several cities including Berat .

With the Bulgarian Tsar Asen Constantine I married a daughter of Theodore II, relations are bad. After trying unsuccessfully to prevent Michael VIII to take Constantinople, Asen Constantine I suffered reprisals from the emperor who advance to the plain of Sofia ( 1264 ). But Michael has to retreat when it comes to the Hungarian army of Stephen V. After that Michael Palaeologus takes Philippopolis and several cities east of the Bulgarian state. Constantine still reacts and asks his best Tatar Nogai Khan of Kipchak to attack the Byzantine emperor. The Khan inflicted a heavy defeat to Michael VIII before looting Thrace ( 1265 ) . To get out of this mess, Michael Palaeologus Constantine married his daughter to Asen widower. In addition to that the emperor should visit the Tsar's Black Sea cities he had taken, but Michael does not do what causes a new war. Constantine tries to call his allies Tatars, Nogai but changed sides and became an ally of the Emperor because it gave him a bastard in his marriage . So this is the Khan of Kipchak that protects Thrace to attack the Bulgarians.

Shortly after, following an incident, the Bulgarian Regency amounts to the daughter of Michael VIII. However, senior Bulgarian officials are opposed and called Ivailo Tsar ( 1277 ) . A civil war occurs with Michael tries to take this opportunity to enlarge its territory at the expense of the Bulgarians . The emperor John Asen supports the opponent to the throne of Bulgaria Ivailo. Contender Michael managed to settle on the throne under the name of John Asen III but was overthrown shortly after by Ivailo who is himself overthrown in 1280 by George Terter who, upon arrival, sign a treaty with Charles of Anjou Michael VIII cons . Thus, Bulgaria fell into a succession crisis is no longer a direct threat to the Empire. It is quite different from Serbia , a young and growing. The main leader of the Serbs Stephen Uro I. marries a Latin Hlne d'Anjou. To avoid a war with the Serbs, Michael Palaeologus tries to marry one of his daughters to a Serbian prince, Miloutine. But the project fails, the Byzantine embassy considering the prince's court as indecent for a Byzantine princess. This has negative consequences for the Empire. Indeed, Miloutine is very irritated by the abandonment of marriage and he married a daughter of John Angel the great enemy of Michael VIII. Soon after, capturing the cities of Skopje and Serres, Stephen Uros opens the way for his successors become dangerous enemies to the Byzantine Empire .

Eastern Politics

Michael VIII busy with his policy in the West was relatively peaceful relations with the Eastern powers. Early on, he signed a treaty with the Khan Mongolian Hulagu Khan prevailing in Asia Minor and who is pro-Christian. He builds relationships with the Mamluks and its leader Baybars with whom he shares one goal: avoiding a crusade of the West. Baybars and asked Michael to leave him free passage of the Straits so he could communicate with his ally khan Nogai (pro-Muslim) of the Khanate of Kipchak. Michael VIII hesitant eventually abandoned his alliance with Hulagu hoping this treaty with Baybars Nogai dissuade an ally of the Bulgarian attack the empire that succeeded since triple anti-Western alliance was signed by Baybars, Nogai and Michel Palaeologus. But in 1272 with the Union of the two churches, the Byzantine Empire stops communicating with Egypt before signing in 1277 a treaty with Qala'un , the successor of Baybars against Charles of Anjou.

Facing the Turkish sultanate of Rum , Michael VIII does not act. Indeed this is very dangerous and sultanate should focus most of its forces against the Mongols. The emperor's lack of military means can not recover the territories. In addition, the Hellenic culture has completely disappeared from the territory of the sultanate, the Seljuks have created a new civilization, and even if Michael had regained the sultanate, he struggled to restore Byzantine civilization on this territory. Asia Minor and who for over 1000 years had been Roman and Hellenic culture (with the Roman Empire at first then with the Byzantine Empire) is discovering a new civilization. Only the Greek Empire of Trebizond managed to save Hellenism. On the lands of Asia Minor, many sultanates including the emerging Turkish Karaman who takes possession of Iconium in 1278 . Another tribe, Kayi , driven by the Mongols established between Kutahya and Bursa and is at the service of Sultan Alaeddin Keykubad I. . This tribe controlled by Ertugrul brings the Ottomans in history.

By hosting `Izz ad-Din Kay Kwus the Sultan of Roum, who had been driven from his throne by the Mongols, he commits an error . Indeed, it promises to Hulagu to keep the sultan of Rum to Constantinople that it does not come back well. `Izz ad-Din furious turns toward the Bulgarian tsar to whom it communicates information before leaving the Byzantine capital after the defeat of Michael VIII in 1265 . Unable to lead a political offensive against the various Turkish emirates, it could strengthen the defense at the borders but it does the opposite. The emperors of Nicaea to keep the eastern border have established to protect settlers paid defenses. Michael VIII gave up the system too expensive and so the border towns and villages are becoming the target of numerous raids by Turks and Mongols and soon the area is deserted. Michael sends his brother John Palaeologus, already victorious at Pelagonia. Opposite, the Turks are well established and Jean merely Tralles build fortresses and towns of the valley of the Meander. In addition, it ensures that the pay of soldiers in the region is sufficiently large and regular . However, shortly after the departure of John who died in 1274 , the Turks resumed their incursions. The area is deserted by the Byzantines and the rot is definitely Turkish. In response, Michael sends his son Andronicus Palaeologus against the Turks and Mongols. He obtained a first-time successes including the resumption of the City of Tralles Andrinocopolis renames it. But he leaves without walls and without supplies and soon the Turks take over the city after having defeated a force led by the Byzantine governor of the region . Michael VIII is thus forced to sign a treaty in which he concedes many towns and villages in the Turkish and Mongolian emirates including former Tralles who becomes a Turkish emirate (one of Mentese) increasingly close to Constantinople . To preserve its last possessions in Asia, Michael VIII had built a line of forts along the river Sangarius. In 1281 , Michel has finally come to campaign in Bithynia , devastated by the Turkish raids. He managed to repel them but can not continue his campaign for John Doukas rebelled again against Byzantium .

Michael VIII, chief architect of the Sicilian Vespers

Main article: Sicilian Vespers.
Sicilian Vespers, the greatest achievement of Michael VIII in his foreign policy (except the recovery of Constantinople). Painting by Francesco Hayez (1846)

Throughout his reign, Michael VIII had to struggle with Charles of Anjou, brother of King Louis IX of France, who had conquered Sicily at the expense of Manfred. The fight against this new enemy is indeed almost inseparable from the attempted union of the two churches. Indeed, when the pope is for the Union, Charles of Anjou's hard to make progress on the contrary, if the pope is to the Franks of Sicily while the brother of Louis IX progresses. On the death of Gregory X, Charles I of Anjou seizes the Achaia the 1 May 1278 ) claiming that he is the heir. He argues that he is married to the daughter of William de Villehardouin, Prince of Morea (principality of Achaia, which also included). But this possession brings him nothing but trouble since the Byzantines launched incursions into Achaia from the fortress of Mistra. The French-born Pope Martin IV is strongly committed to the cause of Charles of Anjou. Thus, excommunicated Michael VIII in October 1281 . However, the situation is not improved by Charles. He sends one of its warlords, Hugh of Sully with 8000 soldiers besiege Berat , City of the Adriatic and key point of the road to Thessaloniki. Charles of Anjou decided to lay siege to the defenders during the winter 1280 - 1281. In March, the Byzantine army reinforcements arrived and took up position overlooking the city. The inability of Anjou to know the number and position of the enemy creates panic in the ranks of the army retreated. The riders are mostly made prisoner and taken to Constantinople in the purest Roman tradition .

Charles of Anjou, irritated by all these failures and seeing that he can not progress in the territory of the Empire form an alliance with the Prince of Taranto and Venice. The alliance plans to restore the Latin Empire of Constantinople ( Treaty of Orvieto , 3 July 1281 ). But Michael VIII and reacts with his ally the King of Aragon, who considers himself the legitimate successor of Sicily, it causes a revolt of the Sicilians, 30 March 1282 which led to the massacre of the Angevin troops . The latter are driven from the island of Sicily is from that time dominated by the Aragonese. This event is called later the "Sicilian Vespers." This coup is surely the greatest achievement of Michael VIII in his foreign policy.

Genoa or impossible economic revival of the empire

The Treaty of Nymphaeum concedes huge commercial rights to Genoa. The Italian city and has a virtual monopoly in the economic empire in the image of its control over alum. After Venice for nearly 60 years, it was the turn of its rival to control the economy of the empire . Becoming established at the confluence of trade routes, it prevents the Byzantine Empire to take advantage of the immense business opportunities it has. In addition, Genoa yet formally allied with the empire does not hesitate to conspire against him as in 1264 when Genoa signed a treaty with Manfred I of Sicily to restore the Latin Empire. Michael VIII finally reconciles with the maritime city. But in compensation for the treachery, the Genoese were driven out of Constantinople and should settle in the suburb of Galata across the Golden Horn. Michael VIII and establishes a new town which is not at all under control of the empire and with its port soon attracts boats from around the world gradually deserted the port of Imperial City and even the plunge and Byzantine Empire in distress .

A mixed record

Miniature time representative Michael VIII Palaeologus.

Michael VIII died on 11 December 1282 while with the help of 4,000 Tatars of the Golden Horde , he is preparing to launch an attack to remove the State of Thessaly . He therefore campaigning by boat and on horseback, but poor health forced him to stop in Thrace , where he died in Pachomios. His son Andronicus II already co-emperor who succeeded him and buried at the site of his death, preferring to avoid the funeral in the capital where a portion of the population is hostile to the deceased Emperor . The body was later transported to Selymbria.

At his death, leaving an Empire Michael VIII restored but weak. Early in his reign, when he was emperor of Nicaea, he earned his greatest success, the most important is of course the recovery of Constantinople. Despite this achievement that allows him to restore the Byzantine Empire, Michael VIII is seen by his contemporaries as a usurper, nothing more. Moreover, after the capture of the Imperial City, it multiplies errors. The gruesome mutilation he subjected the young John IV almost cost him his throne. Moreover, removal of the patriarch Arsene Autorianos causes the creation of a favorable Church Patriarch, arsenite that cause almost a schism.

In domestic policy, Michel succeeded in part to renovate and repopulate Constantinople was in a sorry state in 1262 , but his treaty with Genoa is disastrous for the Empire and the beginning of a battle between the Venetians and Genoese unfolding the Byzantine Empire and deprived of resources necessary for its conservation.

His attempt of Union of the two churches was to safeguard the Byzantine Empire against the threat of Catholic states. The way he tries to gain acceptance to the Byzantine population alienated most important nobles of the Byzantine Empire. In foreign policy, he managed more or less its objectives: it succeeds in preventing a new crusade against the Empire and above, causing the Sicilian Vespers, he destroyed his nemesis.

Unfortunately, in Greece , he failed to chase the Frankish principalities which remain dangerous for the Empire.

In the Balkans, although he managed to shards of good shots against the Bulgarian , he discovered instead an enemy that is extremely dangerous for the Empire: Serbia.

In its Eastern policy has good relations with the Mamluks and the Khanate of Kipchak but the removal of settlers who protect the eastern part of the Empire is a disaster . Michael VIII loses the main land that formed the empire of Nicaea and more than ever, the Empire to lose its last Asian provinces.

Family

Michael VIII was the son of Andronicus Palaeologus , governor of Thessaloniki, and Theodora Paleologos. Married in 1253 to Theodora Vatatzes (1240 1303), cousin of Emperor Lascaris of Nicaea, he had children:

Ancestry three degrees 

              > Michael Palaeologus
                
            
         > Alexis Palaiologos 
           
        
          > 
                
       
    > Andronicus Palaeologus 
   governor of Thessaloniki
   
      > 
        
    
     > Irene Comn  ene       >   Michael VIII Palaeologus (1224  1282) Byzantine emperor (1261-1282)     >   George Palaeologus sebastos      > Alexis Palaiologos          >       > Theodora Paleologos     > Alexis III Ange ( 1203)   Byzantine emperor (1195-1203)     >    Irene Angel > Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamata


Sources


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