Medieval Renaissance

The medieval revivals are periods of medieval Western characterized by a renewed cultural material across Europe. It identifies three main phases of medieval revivals, known as the Carolingian Renaissance ^(eighth century and ^ninth century), Renaissance Ottonian ^(tenth century) and Renaissance of the twelfth ^century.

The term is used by many medievalists since the ^nineteenth century , by analogy with the concept historiography of rebirth. Innovative as a break with the vision of a medieval obscurantist dominant historiography of the nineteenth ^century, the concept is still the subject of much debate and criticism, which focus in particular on the extent of movement of renewal, and the relevance of the combination with the traditional hyphenation is that the Renaissance of the ^sixteenth century.

History of concept

Jean-Jacques Ampere is the first to talk about rebirth in the Middle Ages

The use of the term " renaissance "in medieval history appears in the ^nineteenth century with the birth of medieval studies. This is Jean-Jacques Ampre who made the first use in the 1830s . But the concept evoked by Ampere (more philologist that historian ) although sometimes reused by other authors of the nineteenth ^century is taken to characterize a particular moment in the cultural history of the Middle Ages by historians of the ^twentieth century , from the 1920's.

Erna Patzelt takes the concept in 1924 for the Carolingian period , Hans Naumann used in 1927 for the Ottonian era and Charles H. Haskins published in 1927 his most noted: The Renaissance Of The Twelfth Century . Three medieval revivals are now identified in ^eighth , ^tenth and ^twelfth centuries.

Under the Carolingian Renaissance, the rebirth Ottonian and rebirth of the ^twelfth century are clearly separate from the work of some historians, such as Jacob Burckhardt , who seek the medieval roots of the Renaissance (that of the ^sixteenth century ). The medieval concept of rebirth obviously refers to her, but attempts to apply at other times the idea of a process of cultural renewal, and to highlight their common features, including the influence of texts of classical antiquity and their study . In this he is clearly not a " pre-Renaissance "(a term more suited to Trecento Italian ).

Beyond the three periods, the term renaissance has subsequently been remarkably successful in many medievalists about various eras: Renaissance in Africa vandal ^fifth century , Renaissance Isidorian the ^seventh century Spanish , Renaissance Northumbrian to the ^eighth century , and other variations. We also find use in the history of Late Antiquity with the Renaissance idea of Constantine , or in the history of the Byzantine Empire , including the Macedonian period . Multiplication of rebirth which is also the sign of the permanence of ancient references throughout the Middle Ages .

Charles H. Haskins published The Twelfth Century Renaissance Of The in 1927

However, it should moderate the comparisons between different periods of revival in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance of XVI ^century. The revivals are indeed medieval commentaries by historians specializing in the history of culture, education and intellectual world of the Middle Ages. They are not presented as booms and generalized coherent medieval Europe - only the revival of the ^twelfth century seems to cover a period of great economic and social transformation of the West . Moreover, the phenomena described do not share the development of very secular humanism of the sixteenth ^century. The term renaissance Non-Latin equivalent, can be closer to the idea of renovatio in the current cultural periods, but we can not dissociate it provided a Middle Age Another idea, that of reformatio of the Church and Christian society . The medieval renaissance must be placed in the continuous movement of religious change. Finally, Medieval Renaissance, which see one building after another school structures and the world, and episcopal monastic schools, differ in that the Renaissance of the sixteenth ^century, for which we observe the rupture between science and education .

The revival of medieval times

The rebirth before Charlemagne?

Even before Charlemagne , the development of monastic and episcopal schools in the West, long process that started from the ^sixth century , leading to periods of some real momentum for cultural centers. From there come the designations "Isidore rebirth" for the Spanish Visigothic or "Northumbrian Renaissance" or more broadly, Anglo-Saxon at the time of Bede and the term renaissance could also be used in Italy and Gaul in the ^eighth century. Pierre Riche does not hesitate to bring together these various revivals, or the various revivals in a single motion almost simultaneous, "forerunner of the great Carolingian revival," which peaked between 680 and 700 .

Should we then speak of rebirth isolated, or the beginnings of the Carolingian Renaissance ? Concerning the revival Isidore, for example, some important limitations appear. In fact Isidorian First, Isidore of Seville seems well insulated while Zaragoza and later Toledo became the main centers of study Visigoth and the south of Spain is threatened by the Arabs . In addition, the humanistic culture of Isidore, mixing references to ancient pagan and Christian inspiration, remains the preserve of an elite minority . Finally, knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, which is essential for the interpretation of the Bible is very low in all of Spain despite the strong presence of Byzantine and Jewish .

The Anglo-Saxon example is perhaps even more revealing certain limits. The actors of "Northumbrian Renaissance" as Aldhelm and Bede are particularly hostile to classical culture and the liberal arts , focusing on teaching the Bible study, and rejecting such rhetoric and dialectic, considered weapons formidable in the hands of the heretics . Can we therefore speak of a renaissance in its own right? The influence of movement is limited, the English clergy as the laity .

Finally, the continuation of this growth in Gaul ^eighth century seems primarily with preparing the Carolingian revival. At this time, indeed, a major element comes into play: the desire for reform of political power, which meets the monastic culture now spread to the West .

The Carolingian Renaissance

The long boom school is essential in enabling the Carolingian Renaissance , characterized primarily by a renewal of schools stretching from the late ^eighth century to the early ^ninth century. The efforts of previous centuries are completed thanks to the will of Charlemagne , expressed by the Admonitio generalis of 789. Chapter 72 of the latter is devoted to school and recommends opening a school in every monastery and in each diocese, to teach children "the Psalms, notes, singing, arithmetic, grammar " , that is to say, to read, write, count and sing the Latin grammar is an indispensable complement to the deepening of religious studies, while the "notes" are an equivalent of shorthand useful for future notaries . Charlemagne's commitment to education is constant: Charlemagne also encourages the establishment of rural schools, which the Bishop of Orleans Theodulf implements . The king insisted on the progress of education throughout his reign and his policy was continued by Louis the Pious , allowing the full activity of study centers for the most part already active in the mid- ^eighth century .

Raban Maur (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), dedicated his work to the Archbishop of Mainz Otgar (right)

The other major aspect of the Carolingian Renaissance is the cultural activity of the court, thanks to scholars gathered at the initiative of Charles, whose taste for letters was noticed , and its successors. Among these scholars, the main ones are Peter of Pisa , Alcuin , Einhard , Raban Maur , or later John Scotus Eriugena. This is the famous "palace school", which Charlemagne visited to reward students based on a description largely fictional Notker . This is actually more of a small elite group of scholars, a veritable " Palatine Academy "as called Alcuin . The influence of this small group on the revival and teaching activity is significant, including the promotion of liberal arts which Alcuin was the architect . Finally, the activity of the court is also expressed through the achievements of the Carolingian art , luxury books written in Carolingian minuscule , art , and architectural achievements, the most representative remains the chapel Aix .

The positive assessment of the Carolingian Renaissance is already stressed by his contemporaries. The role of Charlemagne by Alcuin is recalled but also by Heric of Auxerre and Lupus of Ferrires . School renewal is not insignificant: with him are saved many ancient texts, and without these efforts, the writings of Virgil , Horace , Terence , Quintilian , Seneca , Cicero and others might have experience a lot more uncertain . The revival of the Latin language itself owes everything to the efforts of Charlemagne .

This renaissance has limitations, however. The school record is indeed marked by a serious failure: the Council of Aix in 817 , under the chairmanship of Louis the Pious and Benedict Aniane , decided in effect to reserve the monastic schools to Oblate intending to become monks, and allows consideration to lay the external opening of schools: in practice, only large monasteries like St. Gallen could maintain a dual school . Jacques Le Goff issues among the toughest critics on this subject . He also recalls that the Carolingian period has not quantitative traits of a revival, teaching is increasingly closing the majority of children, especially rural dwellers. In addition, the magnificence of the manuscripts of the era, symbolized by the Carolingian minuscule , in fact, he says, more luxury items as research tools . Other historians also extend this thinking to the Latin language, which restored among the elite, the people finally closes, a true "tragedy of the Carolingian Renaissance" .

The culture of the court, finally, Goff describes as a very critical:

"(...) That of the barbarian kings, of Theodoric or Sisebut. It is often reduced to childish games that appeal to the barbarians. Verbal prowess, riddles, "glues" in science it is close to our radio plays and page breaks magazines. The Royal Academy does not exceed the entertainment company, provincial coterie around the prince who sometimes likes to call David, now Homer. The emperor who can read - which is a lot for a layperson - but not write, it amuses as a child by having an alphabet making large letters he tries to decipher the night with the feeling in his fingers the pillow. The enthusiasm for the ancient world is often limited to the return from Cassiodorus and Isidore of Seville . "

These limitations are attributed Goff, referring to the Polish historian Aleksander Gieysztor , reduces the social group that is closed and the Carolingian court, whose cultural needs are reduced to the amusement of a small group of officials.

Codex Egbert, probably composed in Reichenau and dedicated to Egbert of Trier , here represented.

The Ottonian Renaissance

The Carolingian Empire disappeared, a new period of revival opens yet: the "Ottonian renaissance" , also known as the ^tenth century or even of the first millennium. The kings of Germany , Otto ^I , Otto II and Otto III play a major role in protecting the literati in imitation of Carolingian . A figure above dominates the royal entourage: Gerbert d'Aurillac , schoolmaster of Reims and future pope of the year one thousand , including education, marked by rhetoric and pagan poets, is described by his pupil Richer . At the same time precisely, Francie , Abbo , schoolmaster of Fleury and near ^Carrick , leaving a prolific described by his biographer Aimoin .

At the same time the main intellectual centers of activity continues, especially in St. Gallen (in Ekkehard ^I. to Ekkehard II ) and Reichenau (under Witigowo ), or in some dioceses as Trier (under Egbert ), Cologne (by Bruno , brother of Otto ^I),Lige (in Rathier ), Mainz (as William , son of Otto ^I) or Hildesheim (as Bernard , a former tutor of Otto III) .

France, with more than Fleury Abbo and Gerbert Reims, Chartres becomes a place renowned in the early ^eleventh century through the teachings of Fulbert . England is not left in the reign of Athelstan , by Dunstan of Canterbury , Oswald of Worcester and Aethelwold Winchester , while contributions Mediterranean are lower, whether in Spain , subject to barbarian influences or in Italy - despite the reputation of Bobbio (including Abbot Gerbert was a time) and its library, although also the transformations of Rome under Leo.

The Ottonian revival is limited, especially compared with the Carolingian times. Rich Pierre prefers to speak of "Third Carolingian Renaissance" covering the ^tenth century and extending into the XI ^century , the first two being that the reign of Charlemagne itself, and that of his successors . This analysis sees the cultural activity of the Ottonian period a survival time of more than Carolingian renaissance.

The revival of the twelfth ^century

The ^twelfth century is probably the medieval period the most likely to be applied, after Haskins , the concept of rebirth. Because the narrowness of environments concerned by Carolingian and Ottonian revivals, raised by many historians , this time is no longer appropriate: the ^twelfth century is indeed a time of profound changes in all the West, in the cultural world, seen through educational institutions, ideas and actors . The only criticism of the appropriateness of the use of the term "renaissance" are this time on what may seem a detail: the men of the twelfth ^century, players in an undoubted revival of studies and classical culture does indeed seem to have had such as the ^fifteenth century and ^{sixteenth-century} sense of breaking with a long period of darkness separating them from the ancient world . A difference due to the strong sense of continuity with this world alive, and who may prefer to evoke a renovatio: the term "renaissance of the ^twelfth century, however much needed in the historiography, thanks to Haskins from 1927 , then quickly through three Canadian Dominicans, Gerard Pare, Adrien Brunet and Pierre Tremblay authors in 1933 of a book has also become a classic . The success of the term is confirmed in the post-war .

It is now starting the renaissance of the twelfth ^century from the years 1060-1070, which show more than prodrome , which establishes continuity with the Ottonian Renaissance, although a real school crisis and of formal education is found in the eleventh ^century . Indeed, the cultural revival of the twelfth ^century is to put in several long time that the condition and promote: economic growth started from the ^tenth century - and particularly the growth of cities -, the political stabilization of the West a true "renaissance of the state" - and increased geographic mobility that results - and the reform of the Church began in the ^eleventh century and called "Gregorian" .

Another source of this renaissance: the great popularity of translations. In Toledo on the archbishops Raymond and John Gerard of Cremona leads a group of Jewish translators, Mozarabic and Muslims in the West allow the transmission of works of Aristotle , of Euclid , of Ptolemy , as well as Avicenna or Al- Khawarizmi. At Montpellier or Montecassino (under Constantine the African ), what are the medical literature that are the subject of attention of translators. Palermo is another translation center, thanks to Henry Aristippus , translator including Plato Aristotle, Ptolemy, Euclid .

Representation of the twelfth ^century: the seven liberal arts surrounding the philosophy, which stands in the company of Socrates and Plato

The most remarkable features of the renaissance of the twelfth ^century primarily concern the structures of education, and what is sometimes called "educational revolution" , which lead to the XIII ^century to the birth of universities. At Bec , in Normandy , under St. Anselm , then Laon in Anselmo , former student, is preparing the general growth of urban schools . The flurry of initiatives is particularly remarkable in Paris where exceptional personalities animate schools. We retain first Abelard , who revolutionized theology by the dialectical approach . John of Salisbury then, the famous author Policraticus , reflection on power and political morality , and Metalogicon, Treaty on studies and source of primary importance on the intellectual life of the time . Hugues de Saint-Victor finally renewing education by a new classification of knowledge, Didascalicon, and a sum major theological, De Sacramentis .

Furthermore, studies also bloom. At Chartres First, where the figure remains the most famous Bernard of Chartres , best known by his pupil John of Salisbury through which was transmitted to us the word of Bernard, in particular one of the most famous quotations from the Middle Ages: "We . Include even the schools of Orleans , Angers , Tours , plus the UK (especially Oxford ), the German (which continues the work of Trier , of Cologne , of Mainz ) and Italy (where the particular development School of Bologna ) .

This remarkable period of cultural prosperity does not stop there. This time, a world linked to culture and education is organized in Western cities. Teachers and students are for the first time a social life, that of "intellectuals" medieval evoked by Jacques Le Goff . A medium whose codes are fixed, including the "license to teach" ( licentia docendi ) established in 1160 at the initiative of Pope Alexander III . An environment rich with new features (including the development of theology as a discipline in its own right, Abelard is one of the first to qualify under this term ), and various trends of controversy too, as evidenced by violent arguments between Abelard and St. Bernard. Finally an open environment on classical culture and the authors of the Muslim world (transmitted by the translators ), the world of the laity, of course (including bishops) and also the policy (which shows particular activity of goliards , wandering poets from a protector to the other ).

References

Leave a Reply