Louis Xvi Of France

His reign saw the end of the Ancien Regime

Following the death of Louis XV , on 10 May 1774 , Louis Auguste became King of France. He is 19 years. On 11 June 1775 in the Cathedral of Reims , it is hallowed tradition dating back to Pepin the Short.

The end of the reign of his grandfather had been marked by diplomatic and financial consequences of defeat after the Seven Years War. Louis XV had made a hard put not to the parliament who opposed his tax absolutism, and had begun an attempt at economic and institutional reforms, with his minister Ren Nicolas de Maupeou (1771). The image of the monarchy was degraded (especially a moral point of view, the religious faction blaming the presence of Madame Du Barry and the influence of the Enlightenment).

The new king is trying to be a "good" king. Wanting moderate authoritarian absolutism of its predecessors from the beginning of his reign Louis XVI restored the Parliaments. He accepts and supports legislative changes (such as the abolition of torture) requested by the disciples of the Enlightenment. On at least four times (with Turgot , Necker , Calonne , Brienne Lomenie and Necker again), he attempts to pursue reforms more or less deep in the kingdom, and more specifically the introduction of a tax equal. He faces each time the opposition elites of the country (the majority of the nobility and a part of the clergy ) and his entourage (the court , the queen, etc.).. But on this point, the Parliaments , composed of the nobility of the privileges attached to the maintenance, also oppose the proposed tax reform. Louis XVI, who is a legalist, never hear exceed the powers given to it by the fundamental laws of the kingdom, nor use force against the people. It must therefore endorse his reforms. The failure of the parliamentary vote, then a meeting of an assembly of notables led to the convening of the Estates General , in which Louis XVI hopes to bend legally the two orders that the block is the last episode this confrontation.

If the systematic blocking of reforms by the nobility and higher clergy is the major political problem of his reign, the growing deficit is the main economic problem. The cost of the court, as construction of upgrades (eg roads) and the indebtedness associated with the War (support the U.S.) make the crucial issue of debt. However, again the king thinks it can not be absorbed by major reforms dehorned certain privileges. The States General , convoked by the Prime Minister to try to carry out the most peaceful possible escape fast enough to control. The king and his brothers, Marie Antoinette herself, were initiated into the Masonic Lodge of the three brothers in the East of Versailles .

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Louis XVI by Duplessis

The Department Turgot 1774/1776

Turgot was called by Louis XVI as controller general of finance. A bold choice: Turgot had written articles economics of the Encyclopedia of Diderot and d'Alembert , a book semi-forbidden.

Turgot then tackle a project "revolutionary" set up a pyramid of assemblies elected through the kingdom of Commons municipalities, district and province and municipality in the kingdom. As explained in 1854 the historian Victor Duruy : "These were very great news; Turgot planned in other more formidable: the abolition of chores hanging over the poor preparation on the nobility and the clergy of a territorial tax, but improving the lives of priests and vicars, who had only the smallest portion of the revenues of the church, and deletion of most monasteries ; equal participation of tax by creating a cadastre ; freedom Awareness and recall of Protestants ; redemption of feudal rents and only one code: the same system of weights and measures throughout the kingdom, removal of guilds and masters who chained the industry ; thought as free as industry and trade and finally, like Turgot took care of moral needs as well as material needs, a comprehensive plan of public education to spread throughout the Enlightenment " .

But after two years of resistance, Louis XVI and his ministers reformers eventually give up. Malesherbes resigned. Louis XVI had to resolve to return Turgot, May 12, 1776, and return shortly after its reforms (recovery chores and Masters) .

The Department Necker

In October 1776 Louis XVI called on Necker as "Director of Finance" (the equivalent of "Comptroller General of Finance). A triple revolution: a banker commoner , a stranger (Geneva) and in addition a Protestant.

Necker and Louis XVI call on the trade reforms most critical of the kingdom. The administration of Necker is thus marked by the emancipation of the last slaves in the royal domain by an order of 8 August 1779 . Refusing the abolition irrespective of personal servitude, but he abolished throughout the kingdom the " resale right "and frees all the" hand-mortables . This order was facilitated by the intervention of Voltaire , who in 1778 pleaded the cause of the serfs of the abbey of Mont Saint-Claude Jura . It further authorizes the " engagistes who think themselves wronged "by this reform to give the king the relevant fields in exchange for financial compensation . To encourage imitation of his royal act of emancipation of the serfs in the royal domains, the ordinance states that "whereas those less postage as a disposition, that as a return to natural law , we have exempted these types of acts .

Nevertheless the order is not applied , and serfdom persisted locally until the Revolution that abolished with privileges at the famous night of August 4, 1789.

He also abolished the previous question (applied to death row). "He also threw an organization of provincial assemblies , but in a simple goal of financial administration. "Adds the historian Victor Duruy .

After the publication in 1781 by the Necker Reports of financial condition in 1781, "the war had been so successful against Turgot began under his successor." Says Victor Duruy. The parliament rejected the edict which ordered the reinstatement of the provincial assemblies , and the courtiers threatened in their extravagant spending, made use of slander to undermine the authority of the king and his ministers. Louis XVI and Necker could not hold out long before the opposition of the privileged. Necker resigned to the king, who accepted May 21, 1781 .

August 8, 1779, an edict authorizing married women, minors and religious receive pensions without authorization (including the husband regarding married women) .

The Department Calonne

Louis XVI called Charles Alexandre de Calonne , who had a reputation as a good technician of finance, as Comptroller General of Finance (November 1783) and Minister of State to replace Necker. Calonne undertaking for three years a policy of spending and borrowing, "recovery" according to some (major projects in transport, industry, commercial treaty with England in 1786), to restore the credit of the State by means of strict reverse of those Necker.

But it failed. Calonne must be solved at the same level of reforms that his predecessors: to liberalize trade through the abolition of customs inland delete drafts, reduce size , replace the drudgery of medieval nature by a cash benefit, converting the Fund Discount a state bank and especially "privileged subject to tax and grant territorial establish provincial assemblies "elected that distribute tax. As in the plane of Turgot, Calonne provided a pyramid of local councils (parish and municipal assemblies, district assemblies) elected by taxpayers.

Louis XVI would have started to Calonne, "It's all pure Necker you give me there! "But the plan would be closer to that of Turgot. One of the main drafters of the project is physiocrat Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours , a former collaborator of Turgot.

To avoid having to confront the privileged minority MPs (group of powerful nobles of the robe ), who still refuse to reform and fiscal equality, the government convened a meeting of 144 leaders (in fact, still mostly privileged) for her submit its proposal. But meeting in February-March 1787, it denies equal territorial tax. Louis XVI, who had argued for months, abruptly withdrew its support Calonne in April 1787 , perhaps under the influence of the court, the queen, or the public.

In January 1784, Louis XVI abolished the personal toll that weighed on the Jews of Alsace .

The Department Brienne

On 1 May 1787, Louis XVI called libertine Bishop Etienne-Charles de Brienne Lomenie the General Comptroller of Finance. Brienne still retains the same essential reforms but in front of him the Parliament of Paris. He managed to free trade within the country, the establishment of provincial assemblies elected, and the redemption of chores. "But the struggle began strongly about the stamp tax and land tax. The king held a lit de justice and made to save the last two edicts " .

Protest before the parliament, Louis XVI had him exiled to Troyes in August 1787 and do remember that when MPs agree to extend direct taxation to all forms of income. But parliaments oppose a new loan of state . They end up appealing to the general statements in hopes of blocking the reform of tax equality. Brienne accept their place and left power Aug. 25, 1788.

November 17, 1787, Louis XVI asks Malesherbes to submit a report to improve the situation of Jews in France .

The second ministry Necker

Before the bankruptcy of the state, Louis XVI appealed again to Necker, 25 August 1788. It takes over a claim of parliament: the convening of the Estates General in 1789. This measure turns against the privileged, especially as Necker was in favor of doubling the participation of the third estate.

Various reforms

Under his reign, August 24, 1780 that the "preparatory question" and is abolished on ¹ May 1788, a new decree removes the "previous question" . Parliaments, however, refuse to ratify this edict and the king must hold a lit de justice to impose the May 8, 1788. Many public works have also started including with respect to drying up of marshes.

Following the first attempt to unify weights and measures of the kingdom of France's King Philippe le Long in the States General of Orleans in 1321, and following up to that of King Louis XV in 1770, Louis XVI will achieve this long series of attempts by signing May 8, 1790 the project of unification of weights and measures of the Kingdom of France, proposed by Talleyrand. Following the report of March 19, 1791, Academy of Sciences, and the proposal of Chevalier Jean-Charles de Borda , the " meter "of Burattini , better defined, is adopted as the unit of length. From March 26, 1791, the proposal of Jean-Charles de Borda is transmitted by Condorcet in the Assembly. Tasks distributed among the scholars: Borda Cassini, Lavoisier, and Hauj lead to the determination of the meter, the second and the kilogram, metric foundation which is now called the International System of Units (SI) applied Following the mtrification in every country in the world except the United States, Great Britain (where road signs are denominated in miles and pints of beer), Liberia and Myanmar.

Foreign policy

France plays a leading geopolitical role in Europe. The alliance with Catholic powers allows him to avoid any conflict in Europe. To restore the position after the loss of French colonies overseas, anxious to thwart British advances overseas, and take the revenge of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 disastrous for France, the king endowed the army a navy which competes for the first time since the War of Austrian Succession (forty years ago) with that of England, especially during the War of Independence of the United States where France militarily aid insurgents. Louis XVI plays an important role in the modernization of the French Navy. According to historian Andrew Zysberg Sea (University of Caen): "It's a king geographer who is passionate about the sea, he reads the stories with passion for travel, learn about new techniques of navigation. He develops a building program, increased appropriations for the navy, improves the lives of sailors crucial topic at the time, it promotes on merit, against tradition, the squadron commanders from the war America . "

It continues the traditional French policy of supporting Catholic missions in the Middle East. Facing the void created by the prohibition of the Society of Jesus ( Jesuits ) in 1773 , he chose the Vincentians to replace missions in Ottoman territory. Pope Pius VI accepts the change, symbolized by the management center of Catholic missions in the East, St. Benedict High School in Istanbul , by the Congregation of the Mission of Saint Vincent de Paul , on 19 July 1783. It recognizes as valid the certificates of births, marriages, deaths of his Protestant subjects in 1788 (Edict of Tolerance).

A simple yet erudite king

Louis XVI has long been caricatured as a king a bit cheesy, manipulated by his advisors, unfamiliar with the issues of power, with hobbies such as locks and a pervasive passion for hunting.

This image is partly due to its attitude toward the court , especially because of the slander of the party first and Lorraine M. de Choiseul , the Comte de Mercy , the Abbot of Vermond and finally Maria Theresa of Austria.

Louis XVI was a Prince and studious scholar. Apart from his known passion for the locksmith , he was fond of history, geography, and marine science. He made the navy a priority of its foreign policy, and has a theoretical knowledge so sharp, he was pleased when he first saw the sea, to make remarks whose relevance stunned his interlocutors.

Louis XVI giving instructions to Captain La Perouse on his voyage of exploration around the world, by Nicolas-Andr Monsiau , (1817)

In scientific terms, it mandated Jean-Francois de La Perouse to perform around the world and the map. Not having more regular updates from the January 16, 1788. He had announced in his last letter which was to be his career and the probable time of his return to the summer of 1789. No news since a long time the king had sent two ships to find him. February 28, 1790, the Constituent Assembly decreed that a premium would be paid to any seaman giving news of the Expedition . The expedition, launched recently, was led by captains who also perished before their return during the Revolution. Louis XVI, then asked for news of this company up on the scaffold. In 1794 appeared a pamphlet entitled Discoveries in the South Sea. News of Mr. La Perouse until 1794, Paris, Everat, 1794, in-8, the details of which were confirmed in 1828 and 2005 . Agriculturally, Louis XVI also encouraged the establishment in France of the culture of potatoes , which grow in the near Versailles.

Since Louis XIV , the nobility was largely "domesticated" by the court system. The etiquette governed the life of the court by the king a ceremonial center very strict and complex. This construction of Louis XIV was to give a role to a nobility which had hitherto been often rebellious and always threatening to royal power.

Within the court, the nobility saw its participation in the life of the nation held in isolation in a subtle system of dependency, hierarchy, rewards, and his desire for autonomy vis--vis the royal authority significantly reduced. Louis XVI inherited this system. The nobility was the king's service and awaiting awards and honors. Although the overwhelming majority of the nobility could not afford to live at court, the texts clearly show the commitment of the provincial nobility to the role of the court, and the importance that could take the "presentation" to king.

Like his grandfather Louis XV , Louis XVI had the greatest difficulty in entering into this system that had been built a century ago by his quadrisaeul to respond to problems that were outdated. It was not for lack of education: he was the first French monarch to speak fluent English; fed philosophers of the Enlightenment , he aspired to be decided with the image "of Louis XIV "the king's constant representation. This simple image of the king approaches that of "enlightened despots" of Europe, as Frederick II of Prussia.

The refusal to enter the big game of the label explains the bad reputation that will make him the court nobility. By depriving the ceremony, the king deprived her of her social role. In doing so, it is also protected. If originally the courtyard was used to control the nobility, the situation is reversed very quickly: the king was in turn prisoner of the system.

Mismanagement by Louis XV and Louis XVI of this court, the refusal by the parliaments (rather than political expression of nobility and a portion of the upper middle class legal) any political reform, and the image often disastrous to the capricious Queen gradually degrade its image: a lot of pamphlets ridiculing just a part of the nobility who can not bear the risk of losing its special place, describing it not as simple as it was the king, but simpleton like a king.

King in the Revolution

The constitutional monarch

Louis XVI in 1786

Louis XVI swore fidelity to the Constitution in 1790 (table Brenet Nicolas Guy ).

After the storming of the Bastille , the king went voluntarily to Paris on July 17 where he is greeted by the mayor of the new municipality, Bailly. The king accepts the roundel blue and red (the colors of the city of Paris) and Bailly offered him space on her hat adorned with white. For this visit and this gesture, the king approves and the consequences of the revolutionary day July 14. Therefore, the abolition of privileges was passed in the night of August 4 , and Aug. 26 the Declaration of Human Rights and the Citizen was adopted. However, it was not until October 5 that the king agreed to sign the decrees spending decisions made in August. Following this, a crowd came from Paris, mainly composed of women, after having invaded the royal residence (the Palace of Versailles ) requires the transfer of the royal family at the Tuileries Palace in central Paris.

The National Assembly decreed on 10 October 1789 , during the discussion on how to promulgate laws that the formula would be: "Louis, by the grace of God and the law of the State Constitution, the French king to all present and future, hello. " For some, the new title of head of state would be "King of the French" from that date. Yet nothing wrong with that from 6 November 1789 , he made his first official acts (letters patent, laws, etc..) by the formula "Louis, by the grace of God and the Laws of the State Constitution King of the French ", since it conformed to the formula that was enacted decreed on October 10 by the Constituent Assembly. The new seal Royal, used from February 1790 , bore the inscription: "Louis XVI by the grace of God and the Constitution of the State loy of Roy Francis." On 14 July 1790 , during the Feast of the Federation on the Champ de Mars , the king, La Fayette and the people of Paris (260,000 and 14,000 Parisians Federated) take an oath to "be forever faithful to the nation, law and the King "and October 21 of that year, the tricolor flag replaces the white was the color of the royal standard.

The King of the French

Joseph II in "King of the French", "What are you doing, brother? I endorse. "

For others, it would have been declared king by the French Constitution of September 3, 1791 ( full text ) (Chapter II, Article 2: "the only title of King is King of the French"), "accepted" by the king 13 September 1791. The king's powers are indeed limited and specified. Louis XVI is no longer king by the grace of God, but the French king, that is to say, not a ruler by divine right, but somehow the leader, the first representative of the French nation. It retains all executive powers, he carries under human law . This constitution also kept changing the title of the dolphin as "crown prince" (which took place on 14 August 1791).

On 14 September 1791 , Louis XVI swear fidelity to that Constitution.

The episode of the king's flight and his arrest at Varennes is famous. A flight plan had been reviewed by the queen at the end of 1790. In April 1791 , the events leading to its realization. An event prevents physically go to the castle of Saint-Cloud. The revolutionaries opposed indeed to do his Easter with a priest refractory to the civil constitution of the clergy. The king then decided to leave the city of Paris on June 20 with his wife, his sister and her two children, Marie-Thrse and Louis Charles. He was arrested at Varennes-en-Argonne on June 21 despite the presence of 60 hussars of Lauzun.

A declaration to all the French, written by Louis XVI to explain this departure from Paris he had left the Tuileries, was blocked first by Lafayette and the Assembly. It was never aired in its entirety. On the one hand, Louis XVI stigmatizes Jacobins and their increasing influence on French society. On the other hand, he explains his desire: a constitutional monarchy with a powerful executive and independent vis--vis the Assembly. This document major historical, traditionally called "the political testament of Louis XVI" was rediscovered in May 2009 . It is the Museum of Letters and Manuscripts in Paris. King said his feelings about the revolution, some critical consequences without rejecting important reforms as the abolition of the orders and civil equality.

This episode of the flight to Varennes is operated by supporters of a republic (the revolutionary cartoonists will give heart to joy) and the idea of ending the monarchy is increasingly widespread, especially during the episode of the shooting of the Champ de Mars.

Division on the trial of Louis XVI, Supplement No. 77, The Republican newspaper, front page

A significant movement among the revolutionaries began to demand the departure of the king. The Cordeliers write several petitions against him, backed by newspapers as the Republican. The Jacobins decided to follow the Cordeliers , which creates a break in their midst. Some of their members created the club Feuillants. It is within this context that the constitution of 13 September 1791 , mentioned above, is proclaimed.

The extremely complex political game of one year led to the downfall of the king. The country is subject to strong tensions. In the countryside, crops are good, but the political liberal-led Assembly causes a food shortage and many riots, despite the reservations often surplus. In addition to these social tensions, the war is the main difficulty of the monarchy.

This war desired by all parties is accepted by the King appears, from there to play "the politics of the worst" considering the defeat of the Girondins as an opportunity to restore a less revolutionary. The defeats of the French army lead the vote of more radical decrees that the king puts his veto. The ensuing debate, threats clumsy foreign armies inspired by emigrants and riots organized by the revolutionaries are pushing the legislature to order the suspension of the king.

Louis XVI is suspended by the Assembly on 10 August 1792 , after the storming of the Tuileries by the people of Paris, and dethroned at the first meeting of the National Convention decreed that the 21 September 1792 that "the monarchy is abolished in France "and" Year One of the French Republic "will start from 22 September 1792. Louis XVI loses all his titles, the revolutionary authorities refer to it as the name of Louis Capet (in reference to Hugh Capet , whose nickname is considered, erroneously, as a surname).

The trial of former king and his execution

The trial

Engraving of 1791: Louis XVI's head on a pig.

Regarded as an ordinary citizen, Louis Capet was convicted of "conspiracy against public liberty and the general security of the State" by the National Convention (self-imposed by the court) in a first vote on 15 January 1793 , by 707 votes for 718 voters.

Then, with a narrow majority, sentenced to death at the stables of the castle of the Tuileries , after the "permanent sitting of Wednesday 16 and Thursday 17 January 1793 "and amending the ballot 18. A roll call vote, followed by a justification for voting at the podium, resulting in the death penalty. Of 721 voters, 361 voted to unconditionally dead, 26 died with the amendment Mailhe, 44 with various forms of relief, 290 for other penalties (imprisonment, banishment, irons).

Morrison (La Bassetire), one member of the royalist Vende, did not vote (try the king is sacrilege).

Vergniaud , adding to the 26 unconditional 361 votes in favor of the amendment Mailhe, announced 387 for death.

The required majority of 361 votes, the king is punished without delay the execution. This poll, however, suffered no objections because of its nominal nature.

One begins to nickname "Louis the last" .

January 19 was instead a new call vote: "Will he stay the execution of the trial of Louis Capet? . The voting is over 20 at 2 am: of 690 votes, 310 are for, 380 against.

Louis XVI wrote to the Convention calling for a period of 3 days (to prepare for death), and permission to communicate freely with his family this time is denied, but he can say goodbye to his family and unsworn confession to a priest, Father Henry Edgeworth Firmont.

Execution (21 January 1793)

Funerary monuments in memory of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette , Saint-Denis Basilica.

Louis XVI was guillotined on Monday 21 January 1793 in Paris, Place de la Revolution (now Place de la Concorde ). The blade whistled at 10:22, especially in the eyes of five ministers of the executive board on remand.

In his book The New Paris, published in 1798, writer and political essayist Louis Sbastien Mercier describes the execution of Louis XVI in these terms: "

Historiography

Sous la phase jacobine de la Rvolution franaise, Louis XVI est trait de tyran et considr comme un tratre la patrie, jouant double jeu : il aurait fait semblant d'accepter les mesures de la Rvolution franaise, pour sauvegarder sa vie et son trne, tout en souhaitant secrtement la guerre, de connivence avec les princes trangers qui dclarent la guerre la France rvolutionnaire.

De son ct, le courant royaliste a href = "% C3% Contre-r A9volutionnaire" class = "mw-redirect" title = "Counter-revolutionary"> cons-revolutionary drawn from the same time the portrait a "martyr king," conservative, very Catholic, but loving his people misunderstood him.

On his personality

In 1900, the socialist leader Jean Jaures , Justice Louis XVI "and weighing undecided, uncertain and contradictory." He believes he did not understand the revolution which he himself had recognized the need and he had opened the quarry, "which prevented him from taking the lead in forming a" royal democracy "because" he was prevented by the persistence of prejudice Royal, it was mostly prevented by the weight of his secret treachery. Because he had not only tried to moderate the Revolution: he called abroad to destroy it. " .

In the same vein is the biography of writer Jean-Christian Petitfils (Louis XVI, 2005) for which Louis XVI is "an intelligent and cultivated man, a king scientist, fascinated by the Navy and the great discoveries, which foreign policy, was instrumental in the victory over England and American independence. Far from being an uptight conservative, in 1787, he wanted a thorough reform his kingdom by a revolution royal .

For the Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution of Francois Furet , Mona Ozouf (1989), historians "have been painted earlier in the wise and enlightened king, eager to maintain the heritage of the crown by leading the necessary changes, sometimes weak sovereign and improvident, a prisoner of court intrigues, sailing at the judge without ever being able to influence the course of things. In these judgments, there are political reasons, since the unfortunate Louis XVI took first place in the great quarrel of the Old Regime and the Revolution. " Francois Furet believed in the king's double game.

On the flight to Varennes

In the article specific to the episode of Varennes, the paragraph entitled Controversies TV movie is devoted to that day, everything changed: the escape of Louis XVI, released in 2009 on France 2 , whose historical consultant is the writer Jean-Christian Petitfils. There is shown a Louis XVI, still popular in the provinces, who escaped from the capital where he is a prisoner to organize a new balance of power with the Assembly to propose a new constitution, better balancing the powers.

On trial

The trial of Louis XVI is based mainly on the charge of treason. Writers Paul and Pierrette Girault de Coursac believe that the fault of Louis XVI with links abroad amounts to a reactionary party that led the "politics of the worst." Their work rehabilitation of Louis XVI (Survey on the trial of Louis XVI, Paris, 1982) says that the iron chest containing the king's secret correspondence with foreign princes have been fabricated by the revolutionary Roland to acknowledge King. The historian Jacques Godechot strongly criticized the methods and conclusions of this work, for its part considers that the conviction of Louis XVI was included automatically in his trial because the deposed ruler was treated as an "enemy" hit by revolutionary .

One standard response made to the question of the trial is political and goes beyond the king's person. The Communist historian Frederick Geneve (High School Kremlin-Bicetre, a member of the National Council of the CPF and responsible for the archives) and warns: "Do not trivialize the act. They managed to get out of a millennium of beliefs in the supernatural character of quasi-sovereign. They released a French company whose obscurantist gravity it is hard to imagine the strength and consequences. (...) Today it would be futile for the historian to attempt to justify or condemn. This is analyzed. As for the activists of human liberation, hostile to the death penalty, they did not see in this timeless decapitation method of struggle. We have no king and no one else to blame. The credit goes in part to the founding of the Republic and those who thought Louis XVI . "

Notes and references

Notes

References

See also

Related Articles

Events of his life

• Chronology of France under Louis XVI (1774-1788)
• Ministers of Louis XVI
• Convening the Estates General of 1789 and the Estates General of 1789
• Days 5 and 6 October 1789
• Constitution of September 3, 1791
• Flight of Louis XVI and arrested at Varennes (June 1791)
• Day of August 10, 1792
• Trial of Louis XVI
• Result, by departments, voting on four questions during the trial of Louis XVI
• Execution of Louis XVI

Background

• Bourbons
• Society of Former Regime
• French Revolution
• Agathe de Rambaud , lullaby for the children of France
• Pretenders to the throne of France since 1830
• Louis XVI style

Bibliography

History Books

• Vincent Cronin , Louis and Antoinette, ed. Collins, London, 1974 ( ISBN 0809592169 );
• Evelyne Lever , Louis XVI, ed. Fayard, Paris, 1985 ( ISBN 2213015457 );
• Jean Georges Imbert and Flcheux, The Bicentennial of the trial of the King, ed. FX de Guibert, 1993;
• Stephen Taillemite, Louis XVI or the browser motionless, ed. Payot, Paris, 2002 ( ISBN 2228895628 );
• Timothy Tackett, the king fled. Varennes and the origin of Terror, ed. La Dcouverte, Paris, 2004 (U.S. edition: Harvard UP, 2003) ( ISBN 2707142387 );
• Jean de Viguerie , Louis XVI, King beneficent, ed. du Rocher, Paris, 2003 ( ISBN 2268045064 );
• Jean-Christian Petitfils, Louis XVI, ed. Perrin, Paris, 2005 ( ISBN 2262014841 );
• Mona Ozouf , Varennes: the death of royalty (June 21, 1791), ed. Gallimard, coll. "The days that have made France", Paris, 2005, ( ISBN 2070771695 );
• Joel Felix, Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette: a couple in politics, ed. Zone Books, Paris, 2006, ( ISBN 2228901075 )
• Bernard Vincent, Louis XVI, ed. Gallimard, Paris, 2006 ( ISBN 978-2070307494 );
• Paul and Pierrette Girault de Coursac , specializing in the study of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette have drafted a set of books from ' archive , see Paul and Pierrette Girault submissions relating to the history of France during the ^18th century , ^No. 9, Paris, ( 1847 ), p. 475 [ read online at google books ]
• A Journal of Occurrences at the Temple, "during the Confinement of Louis XVI, King of France, Clery (1798) [ read online at google books ]

Fiction

• Johan Heliot, the son of air, Flammarion, 2009. The author imagines that Louis XVI, fled to the United States with his family and Lafayette by Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles , founded with Benjamin Franklin an airline in balloons.
• Carolina Grimm, I, Olympe de Gouges, Calmann-Levy, 2009.

Filmography

• Patrick Le Gall , Louis XVI, king programmed (1989) documentary about the journey of the monarch until the Revolution and his image after his death.

External Links

• (En) Marriage of Louis XVI
• (En) Pedigree of the father of Louis XVI, Louis of France (1729-1765) on Diderot's Encyclopedia
• (En) Testament of Louis XVI

Preceded by	Louis XVI	Followed by
Louis	Dauphin of France 1765 - 1774	Louis
Louis XV	King of France and Navarre then King of the French 1774 - 1791 then one thousand seven hundred ninety-one - 1792	National Convention
	Co-Prince of Andorra 1774 - 1792	Napoleon
	Royal succession 1774 - 1793	Louis XVII

Chronology of the Frankish kings , the kings of France , the French kings and emperors of the French from 481 to 1870
Kings of the Franks	481 Clovis I 511 Clotaire I. 561 Caribert I. 561 Gontran 561 Chilperic I. 561 Sigebert I. 584 Clotaire II 629 Dagobert I. 639 Siegbert III 639 Clovis II 657 Clotaire III 673 Thierry III 691 Clovis III 695 Childebert III 711 Dagobert III 715 Chilperic II 717 Clotaire IV 721 Thierry IV 743 Childeric III 751 Pippin 768 Carloman I. 771 768 Charles I. 814 Louis I 843 Charles II 877 Louis II 879 Louis III 882 879 Carloman II 884 Charles the Fat 888 Eudes 898 Charles III 922 Robert I. 923 Raoul 936 Louis IV 954 Lothair 986 Louis V 987 Hughes Capet 996 Robert II 1031 Henry I 1060 Philip I 1108 Louis VI 1137 Louis VII
Kings of France	1180 Philip II 1223 Louis VIII 1226 Louis IX 1270 Philip III 1285 Philip IV 1314 Louis X 1316 John I 1316 Philip V 1322 Charles IV 1328 Philip VI 1350 John II 1364 Charles V 1380 Charles VI 1422 Charles VII 1461 Louis XI 1483 Charles VIII 1498 Louis XII 1515 Francis I 1547 Henry II 1559 Francis II 1560 Charles IX 1574 Henry III 1589 Henry IV 1610 Louis XIII 1643 Louis XIV 1715 Louis XV, Louis XVI 1792 1774
French Emperor	1804 Napoleon 1815 Napoleon II (not yet proclaimed) 1815
Kings of France King of the French	1814 Louis XVIII 1824 Charles X 1830 Louis XIX 1830 Henry V 1830 Louis-Philippe I 1848
French Emperor	1852 Napoleon III 1870

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• Portal de Versailles
• Portal of the Kingdom of France
• Portal of the eighteenth ^century
• Portal of the French Revolution
• Portal of the Palace of Versailles