Late Antiquity
Illustration Codex Vergilius Romanus , folio 234, fifth or sixth century, Vatican Library
The term Late Antiquity is used to designate a historical period that begins in the late third century but whose end date is much more blurred. It is used in reference to countries that belonged to the Roman world, that is to say to the regions of western and southern Europe, Asia and Africa around the Mediterranean basin but extends well beyond the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476.
Late Antiquity is characterized by a mixture of ancient traditions - what historians call "Roman" - inputs Christian influences and " barbarians. " The theological debates, the difficulties caused by the relations between the Emperor and the Church , the development of Christian buildings characterize the period. Late Antiquity is a crucial period for the transmission of culture, science, and more generally all the knowledge accumulated by the various ancient civilizations. It therefore more interested in high point historians who first saw it in a period of decline to consider it now as a turning point between Antiquity and Middle Ages.
The Late Antiquity begins with the advent of Diocletian .
In the traditional division of history into periods ended with the ancient Germanic invasions and the removal of the last Western Roman emperor , Romulus Augustus , in 476. In Roman Empire considered the height of Roman civilization, was followed from the fourth century the Lower Empire , considered since the eighteenth century as a period of decline . In this context, the Germanic invasions IV and V century passed for a decisive change, sweeping the Roman society and introducing a new social system.
In the mid-nineteenth century, the historian French Fustel de Coulanges was the first to see continuity between the fifth century and following centuries . In 1901, in a book studying the crafts of the late Roman Empire , the Austrian art historian Alois Riegl rehabilitates the period by stating that it is not decadent and has its own unit. In the twentieth century, historians continue to revisit the centuries marking the transition from classical antiquity to Middle Ages. In a book published in 1937 the Belgian medievalist Henri Pirenne (1862-1935), defends the thesis of a continuity in the Mediterranean from IV to VII century . This thesis was first criticized by most historians of ancient Rome. They remained committed to the idea of decline and decay and still see the Roman Empire an ideal age corrupted by imperial absolutism of the IV century,Christianity and the barbarian invasions. The journey of Henry Irenaeus Marrou (1904-1977) illustrates, however, the evolution of historians on this subject: in 1937, he supported the idea of a decadence of ancient culture and molding itself in the schemes of his day . After the Second World War, a new edition of its argument, it challenges the notions of decadence and even end of ancient culture. His posthumous book, Roman and Late Antiquity Decline? reported on the continuities and discontinuities of the Roman world. Today the study of late antiquity requires combining several disciplines to better understand its components: the establishment of major legal codes such as Code Theodosian and Justinian Code , the permanence of ancient culture and development of Christianity as state religion .
While historians agree that most of the Late Antiquity begins with the end of the crisis in the third century and the rise of Diocletian , various conflicting theories about the date of completion. Historians agree that the Germanic invasions were not the radical break that many had believed to see. As shown by the historian Peter Brown , some features of ancient culture are perpetuated beyond the fifth century. The Lombard invasion of Italy in 568 is sometimes used. It is the end of the reign of Justinian ( 565 ) that has long marked for specialists in Byzantine history, the passage of the Eastern Roman Empire to the Byzantine Empire. However, according to contemporary scholars, the Roman tradition perpetuates itself quite well in the Eastern Empire until the seventh century, when it lost a large part of its territory under the battering of the Arab invasions and Slavic, then falling back on her Greek identity. In addition, local situations vary greatly in the old Western Empire: while the British Isles plunge into the " Dark Ages "(" dark ages "in English) from the fourth century, the foundations of ancient civilization remain in the Iberian Peninsula , in France , in Italy and Germany until the seventh century.
A world united to a Roman exploded
Emperors of the Byzantine Empire (284-395)
Historians usually begin with the late Roman Empire during the reign of Diocletian (284-305). Its action is certainly in line with the Emperors Aurelian and Probus , these energetic emperors of the third century, but he asked with Constantine the foundation for a strong feature of the monarchy period.
Diocletian and tetrarchy
A few months after taking office, Diocletian understands that he can only run the empire and entrusted Maximian to look after the West as Caesar and Augustus. In 293, he gave Maximian an assistant who carries the title of Caesar, Constantius and it itself chooses one galley. Thus the needs of the Empire gave birth to tetrarchy , that is to say in power in four or Diocletian retains the rule . The stability of this team for twenty years allows the recovery and deep reform of the empire. There is no territorial division of the Roman Empire, but the four men divided the command of the troops and the sectors in which they operate. They forsake Rome as its capital. This new structure eliminates the usurpers who sowed disorder in Gaul , to push the Franks and Alemanni still in Gaul , the Moors in Africa, Iazyges and carp on the Danube , the Persians in the East. The victory over the Sassanid reinforces the Roman presence in Mesopotamia with the establishment of five new provinces .
Domestic policy of Diocletian is in line with that of the emperors of the third century. As Aurelian , it reinforces the deification of the imperial function. As Valerian , he wants to help restore polytheistic religions whose traditional gods have always protected the Empire, although personally a fan of the cult of Mithra . At the end of his reign, in 297, it triggers a persecution against the Manichean , then 303 the last of the persecutions against the Christians .
In 305, the two Augusti abdicated the same day to make room for their Caesars, Galerius and Constantius, who in turn become Augustus. Diocletian chose two new Caesars, Maximinus II Daia and Severus , deliberately setting aside of the estate the son of Maximian and Constantius. In doing so, he returned to practice Antonines of choosing the best and as heirs, going against the grain of logic hereditary, it causes the ruin of his system . Diocletian retired to his palace in Split.
The Constantinian
The second tetrarchy collides with the ambitions of Maxentius and Constantine , son respective Maximian and Constantius. A period of instability ensued with up to seven August at the same time. In 313, two remain in contention emperors, Constantine and Licinius. The latter is defeated the first time in 316. A compromise was reached between the two men pretended to give birth to a new tetrarchy with two and three Augustus Caesar. But the Caesars are the son of two Augusti, which is reintroducing the principle of heredity that Diocletian wanted to avoid. The two Augusti disagree on religious issues. Constantine was the first emperor openly favorable to Christianity while Licinius, without reconnect with persecutions, defending traditional religion. It is definitely eliminated 324. Constantine then remains the only sovereign. That same year he chose the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium , located on the European shore of the Strait of Bosporus to found a new capital named after him, Constantinople. Organized on the model of Rome , it was inaugurated in 330.
When Constantine died in 337, he has not settled his estate. His three son was proclaimed Augustus after murdering their uncles who could be competitors. They divided the Empire but eventually fall out. Eventually the empire was united under the authority of the second son of Constantine, Constantius II (337-361) appointing two Caesars to very low powers. The long reign of this emperor perpetuates the policy of his father. His cousin Julian , Caesar in Gaul, was proclaimed emperor in 360. The death of Constantius II the following year avoids civil war. Julien, who has renounced Christianity for the love of Greek thought, hence its nickname ' apostate , attempts to restore the ancient religions. His death after 18 months of his reign in 363 makes this futile attempt.
The Valentinians the Theodosian and the end of the territorial unit
His successor, Jovian (363-364), Valentinian I in the West (364-375) and Valens in the East (364-378), all Christians back to the religious neutrality. Valentinian I must face the problems at the borders of the Empire: the Alemanni in the Rhineland, the quads and Sarmatians on the files Danube . Persia remains a threat despite the wars waged by the emperors Julian and Jovian. In addition, early in his reign, the Eastern Emperor Valens, brother of Valentinian I must manage the difficulties caused by the presence beyond the Danube the Goths converted to Arian Christianity . On the death of Valentinian I, the power falls to his two young children Gratian and Valentinian II. Too young to actually govern, they leave power in the hands of their entourage Imperial family and great people of the state. After the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378, Gratian , who may administer the Empire itself, chooses a new colleague for the East, Theodosius.
Gratian adopted a policy strongly opposed to the Gentiles . It seeks, among other things, generate public life influence polytheistic. It removes any government assistance to pagan cults. He faces hostility from the nobilitas Rome tied to traditional religion. He was assassinated by Maximus in 383. The latter is acknowledged Augustus for the West but is defeated by Theodosius after invading Italy devoted to Valentinian II, Gratian's younger brother. The young man is then only Augustus of the West under the protection of General Franc , Arbogast , magister militum established by Theodosius. Valentinian II was found strangled in 392 and Arbogast proclaimed emperor the rhetorician pagan Eugene. In 394, Theodosius defeated the usurper at the Battle of Cold River where the two armies lose most of their forces. While the danger of barbarian is more pressing, the Empire's defenses are weakened by civil wars.
In 395, Theodosius died, after having shared the empire between his son . Arcadius , the elder, received the East and Honorius in the West. This division is a continuation of previous reigns. It is intended purely administrative. Theoretical Unity of the Empire is preserved. But the West of Honorius was soon weakened by the struggle against the barbarians and usurpations. He lost much of its troops. The economy remains fragile while the West than the East is flourishing. But the remoteness of the final two parts of the empire was mainly due to the disagreement between the two imperial courts, which recognizes the differences in economic and demographic trends. This explains why the date of 395 has remained symbolic of the division of the Roman Empire. Yet it's more that can be dated to 408 partitio the final of the Empire. That year, Stilicho , guardian of the two young emperors, Honorius discourages take the lead in the eastern part of the Empire at the death of his brother Arcadius. It is the latter's son, Theodosius II, who reigned over the East from 408 to 450 .
Invasions or Germanic migration to the West?
In 376, pushed by the Huns , the Goths seeking asylum in the Empire. Two hundred thousand of them settled south of Danube , in Moesia in exchange for waiver of recruits. Operated by the Roman officials, they are quick to revolt and ravaged Thrace. The emperor Valens was killed at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The new emperor of the Eastern Empire, Theodosius , managed to conclude a new Foedus with the Goths in 382 . The Goths have the right to settle in Thrace. They retain their own laws and are not subject to the Roman taxes. They are quasi-independent even if they agree to serve in the Roman army as allies, that is to say, under the command of their own leaders .
After the death of Theodosius (395), the Visigoths led by Alaric sacked the Macedonia , the Thessaly , Greece. Arcadius gold price trading at their removal westward. Stilicho is unable to combat them by the sovereign of the East. In 402, while the Ostrogoths invaded the Danubian provinces, the Visigoths penetrated into Italy. In 410 they sacked Rome. This episode is seen as a disaster by the Romans. Pagans see this as a result of the abandonment of traditional gods. St. Jerome sees the punishment of the sins of men . St. Augustine said he, there is no link between Christianity and the Empire . The final settlement of the Visigoths in Aquitaine second and Spain put an end to their raids.
But meanwhile, 31 December 406, the Vandals, Sarmatians , the Swabians , the Alans and Alemanni crossed the Rhine soon followed by the Burgundians. They ravage Gaul and threaten the island of Britain. The latter is abandoned by the Roman troops who go defend Gaul. The powerful anti-barbarian party present at the imperial court gets a purge of the army and administration in Italy, depriving loyal and effective advocates, which Stilicho . The emperor, moved to Ravenna , was compelled to accept the installation of new barbarian kingdoms in Gaul . In 429, the Vandals invaded the Africa that they conquest in 10 years. They deprive Italy of one of its granaries, their fleet controlling the western Mediterranean. They are also Arian fanatics and persecute the orthodox Romans . In 435, the Vandals in their turn get status federated East Africa . King Suevian Hermric creates a real kingdom around its capital Braga in obtaining a Foedus 437-438. The Danubian provinces remain loyal to the Empire but came under the authority of Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire is reduced to Italy, Dalmatia , part of Gaul and Tarraconaise (current Catalonia ).
Aetius , the general of Valentinian III , continues to struggle against the barbarians. It pushes the Franks to the north, the Visigoths to the south of Gaul and Spain. He defeated the Burgundians with its quotas Huns and transfers them into Sapaudia where in 443, Valentinian III allows them to live as a people Federated. In 451, with an army more barbaric than Roman - it includes a strong contingent Visigoths, Franks, Alans - he manages to push Attila at the Battle of Chalons fields. But he is slain in 454 by Valentinian III himself, jealous of his success. The Emperor was in turn murdered by former officers of Aetius. The Western Roman Empire was undergoing a political instability with emperors helplessly challenged by usurpers. In 455, Rome was sacked for over a month by the Vandals of Genseric. Then extend the Barbarians in Gaul irresistible despite the defense of gidius then his son Syagrius . In 476, Odoacer table the very young emperor Romulus Augustus and sent the imperial insignia to Constantinople.
This classical view of the end of the Western Roman Empire is now challenged by some historians. They advance the idea that these "invasions" in the region of the Danube are first mass migration of the Goths pushed by the Huns , followed by a botched integration. Even in Gaul and Africa, the movement of Germanic peoples is as destructive as a first step. Bertrand Lancon, drawing on the history of the Boers in South Africa speaks of "trek". He stressed the desire for integration of the Goths te-30 "> who considers himself the sole ruler of the Empire. After the capture of Ravenna in 493, extends the power of the Ostrogoths in Italy, Sicily and Dalmatia . In his capacity as representative of imperial power, Theodoric attempts to extend its power over other barbarian kingdoms, Arians like him. To Theodoric, the Goths are the protectors of Romans. The Roman administration remains so. The Roman politics and culture have a great influence on the Goths. The Roman emperor gives even the title of King Theodoric. Ostrogothic the kingdom of Italy is an excellent example of collaboration between Constantinople and the barbarian kings.
In the West, the weakening of Roman political and administrative structures leads to a rise of Christian structures, whether episcopal or monastic. In the sixth century, the bishops occupying powers, financial and administrative policies before returning to lay magistrates. This preservation of the city headed by the bishop is at the origin of the medieval .
The Roman East by
In the fifth century, the East experienced a long period of economic prosperity. The imperial treasury full of cash gold . During the reign of Theodosius II (408-450), the city of Constantinople continues to grow and gets a new enclosure, the wall of Theodosius. A legal code is published, the code Theodosius , applicable in all parts of the empire. But the Empire was shaken by violent religious conflict between Nicene and Arian and from 430 between Nestorian and Monophysite. From 440, the Huns threatened the Eastern Empire. Tribute and the granting of Roman dignity Attila will drive off the danger. Marcian , the husband of Pulcherie , sister of Theodosius II, reigned from 450 to 457. Leo I is the first emperor of the East to receive the crown from the hands of the Patriarch of Constantinople. His grand-son Leo II reigned only a few months. So his son Zeno, who is the imperial purple for fifteen years from 476 to 491. It was under his reign that the last Roman Emperor Romulus Augustus was deposed by Odoacer. It remains the only Roman emperor of the world but his authority over the West is only theoretical . Under the reign of Anastasius (491-518), the war against the Persians again. The senate then chooses a Macedonian officer, Justin (518-527) whose nephew, Justinian moved up the ranks of administrative careers.
Justinian (527-565) devotes much of his reign to return to the barbarians of the Roman lands. He believes that any land which was inalienable Roman remains Roman . The West is the prime objective of Justinian. He conquered the Vandals in Africa a few months. He took advantage of the weakening of Italy after the death of Theodoric to intervene in the peninsula in 535. The conquest is more difficult than expected and is final only after a devastating war between 552 and 554. In 554, the Byzantines are part of the conquest of Visigothic Spain to Cordoba. The conquests of Justinian are very expensive. They also led him to overlook the Persian threat momentarily that it rejects the payment of tribute and the Slavs who appear north of the Eastern Empire. He sacrificed and the future of vital regions for the Eastern or Byzantine Empire to pursue the dream of a universal empire. He can not reconcile the adherents of Orthodoxy and Roman Monophysite.
This depletes recapture Rome and Italy is hardly sustainable. In 568, only the regions of Ravenna , of Rome and a few points in southern Italy are still in the hands of the Byzantines. The rest of Italy is divided into principalities Lombardy, Italy is divided for more than a thousand years. The last Roman territories in the West are organized Exarchate of Ravenna and Exarchate of Carthage.
Under the reign of Heraclius (610-641) Eastern Empire takes a Greek character inevitable. The title of Basileus replaces that of Augustus , the provinces become themes. It is also the time of the first Arab conquests. After the Battle of Yarmuk in 636, Syria , Jerusalem , the Egyptian , the Mesopotamian is permanently lost after six centuries of Roman. The Roman Africa came under Arab rule after the fall of Carthage in 698. The Byzantine world and the Arab-Muslim world permanently replace Roman East.
The instruments of power
Ideology and power
Ideology solar Constantine, is at the side of Sol Invictus, which incorporates the adjective INVICTUS, his shield is decorated with the solar chariot
The third century crisis has transformed the imperial power became absolute. The Senate has no influence. We went from principate to Dominate. The emperors of late antiquity also benefit from an ideological construct that has gradually assimilated the emperors and gods live thus justifies their absolute power. For Constantine as to Diocletian , the imperial authority is of divine nature . Diocletian and Galerius , his adopted son, claiming to descendants of Jupiter. They take the surname of Jovian, his colleague Maximian as his co-Constance Caesar that of Herculien. This sacralization of imperial power is also intended to remove any legitimacy to the usurpers possible since only the emperor was elected from the gods, and only the legitimate successor. This ideology does not Constantine and Maxentius , son of Augustus but excluded from power, to challenge the new tetrarchy after the death of Constantius in 306.
Constantine, though affiliated to the lineage of herculienne tetrarchs, deviates from that gets rid of Maximian in 310, the benefit of the solar theology of Apollo and Sol Invictus. This implies a unique power and supreme and has the support of Western armies, which helps its ambitions. The coins of Constantine reflect this ideology sun for a few years (see the image of solidus). In 312, Constantine integrates Christianity with its ideology, and the two main monotheistic solar and Christians will live until 324, when Constantine became the sole master of the Empire. According to Paul Little , the persistence of solar symbols on the coins of Constantine and the language neutral but monotheistic panegyrics pagans of 313 and 321, independently of imperial attitude very favorable to Christians, responded to the concern of all factions household as victory over Licinius was not granted. After his victory in 324, Constantine the exchange in his titles INVICTUS connotation solar VICTOR, while a coin of this date is with the emblem of Christ piercing a snake .
Because of his conversion , Constantine does not seek to assert a divine filiation. He argues instead have been invested by the Christian God to rule the Empire. Currencies than 330 shows a hand emerging from the sky that gives him a crown . The conversion of Constantine is also the problem of Caesaropapism. The emperor acted as a clerk in his way of exercising power. At Constantinople , he built his palace as if it were a church, he says he received a vision of Christ as if he were an apostle , he is also like the emperors after him the title of isopostole, equal to Apostles , it appears as "the bishop of those outside "(that is those who are not clerics) at the Council of Nicea but he is not qualified to Bishop . Constantine says he is the representative of God on earth. His intelligence is reflected in the supreme intelligence . He surrounds himself with incredible splendor to exalt the greatness of the imperial function. Now the Roman and the Christian religion are linked. Eusebius of Caesarea , repeating the arguments of Melito of Sardis , develops the theology of the Christian empire in several books, including his panegyric of 335 . For him, the political unification has allowed religious unification. The emperor is in this context, the servant of God and as the image of the son of God, master of the universe . The emperor also receives the mission guide to salvation and the Christian faith. His growing involvement in religious matters is thus legitimized as the Caesaropapism.
In the West, the spiritual power is committed to greater autonomy from political power. Ambrose lays the foundations of the medieval theory of separation of the two powers outlining even the idea of subordination of political power in power spiritual. He thus forced Theodosius to do penance and to walk barefoot in the ashes to atone for the killing of ten thousand people after the revolt of Thessaloniki in 390 . In the East, Emperors Caesaropapism navigate between the spiritual power and subordination. Thus, in 450, Emperor Marcian was crowned emperor by the bishop of Constantinople Anatolius. His successor, Leo did the same. So the bishop who in the name of God is the sovereign. One consequence of this ideology is the submission of the king to dogmas of the Church. The emperors, however, does not renounce to intervene in the affairs of the Church. Zeno published in 482, the Edict of Henotikon , doctrinal in nature, designed to appease the religious conflict on the nature of Christ. The will of the sovereign of the dogma that raises an objection in the East and West . Justinian , in the sixth century, will remove and sequester up to seven years Pope Vigilius to compel adherence to the positions of the Second Council of Constantinople condemned the Monophysite. Constans II in 653 made apprehend and judge the Pope Martin I , and Justinian II tries the same action against Sergius I in 692 to impose the canons of the Council in Trullo. But this time the Roman militia defended the pope.
The dynastic principle introduced by Constantine the effect of weakening of imperial power. Indeed, on several occasions, children came to power after the death of their father. This is the case of Gratian and Valentinian II , of Arcadius and Honorius , of Theodosius II and Valentinian III in 423. The mothers of these young emperors then occupy an important political role as well as some praetorian prefects.
Army
The number of soldiers by legion fell from 6 000 to 5000 under the Roman Empire in 2000 probably at the beginning of the reign of Diocletian . This increases the number of units. Assume that the Roman army of the fourth century has between 250,000 and 300,000 men. A new challenge is the recruitment of soldiers of barbarian origin to keep the files , the borders of the empire. They complement the military maneuver.
The legions of operation are smaller - 1,000 legionnaires - but are more numerous than in the previous period. They spend 39 to 60. They are responsible for intercepting the barbarians who succeeded in crossing a border more and more fortified. The necessity of defending the Empire justifies the abandonment of Rome as an imperial residence in favor of cities closest border: Trier , Milan , Sirmium , Nicomedia. Constantine completes the transformation of the army and sets up the comitatus , Field Army. His command is assigned to a magister peditum for infantry and cavalry for equitum magister . If necessary, the master of the militia may be created for a particular region as Illyria. In provinces and dioceses exposed troops may be headed by horns or dux. This army is particularly well by the emperors.
To overcome the difficulties of recruitment, Diocletian imposed new rules. Landlords must now provide recruits for the Roman army. During the fourth century, they get the right recruits to replace a sum in gold, aurum tironicum . This system was abolished in 375, but only for the East. A significant number of citizens seeking to escape conscription into the army starting in the desert, by cutting the thumb or becoming a cleric. The heavy sentences against deserters, heredity of soldiering do not avoid recruitment difficulties, prompting the emperor to appeal to the barbarians.
Besides the soldiers to maneuver, Diocletian and Constantine I recruit auxiliary original barbarian to look after the Limes, limitanei. They have little to do with the Roman spirit. The distinction between limitanei comitatus and gives birth to the Roman army of the Byzantine Empire. Under Theodosius , the barbarian presence is increasing, including in positions of high command, exercised by Romanized barbarians as Arbogast , Stilicho , Gainas. In the early fifth century, the army of the West includes 200 000 men theoretically border, almost all of barbarian origin, and 50 000 men in the military maneuver. The borders are then defended by troops from nations that seek to invade the Empire .
In the fifth century the Eastern Roman Empire known anti-Germanic several reactions that lead to the elimination of barbarian chiefs ( Gainas in 400, murder of Aspar in 471) and to exclude Germans of army officers. At the same time 466, the Eastern emperors replace their indigenous populations of potential with the mountaineers Isaurian , subjects of the Empire, commanded by Zeno , who becomes the son of Emperor Leo I and his successor . Latest federated in the East, led by Theodoric , are sent to Italy in 489, freeing the East of their pressure.
Nevertheless, the Germans remain an important element of the imperial army, until the seventh century, but they are individually recruited as mercenaries, and framed by imperial officers . The abandonment of the system of federated and resumed control of the armed forces allows the survival of the Eastern Empire.
In the early seventh century, the financial crisis of the Eastern Empire and the occupation of the Balkans by the Slavs and of Asia Minor by the Persians dry up the potential for recruiting mercenaries. Heraclius then reorganized the recruitment by the institution of peasant-soldiers. The areas still under imperial rule were gradually organized in military districts, commanded by a strategist, and receive the designation of topics , from the Greek name of the unit stationed there (theme). It creates military goods, which are attributed to hereditary and inalienable title to families, cons of military service also hereditary. This institution reminds generalizes that of former Border limitanei, finally gives the means of a powerful indigenous army and exemption to recruit foreign mercenaries, costly and unsafe. The peasant-soldier equips and acquires a horse himself and sees only a small balance, which further reduces the burden of the army. The Army is missing then more soldiers, the resistance of small Byzantine assured for centuries to come .
Administration
Under Diocletian , the distinctions between senatorial provinces and imperial provinces are removed. In 297 , Emperor divides them into smaller entities, raising them from 47 to over 100. These new provinces are grouped into 12 dioceses headed by vicars who obey equestrian directly to the emperors. This multiplication of administrative districts and administrative levels is perceived as being more effective in the fight against the evils of Empire. In 312, there are 108 provinces, 116 in 425 . Constantine makes a reform of the prefecture of the courtroom that handles most of the central government. He divided the empire into large constituencies whose boundaries are in flux, the regional prefectures headed by a praetorian prefect. The prefects have large civil and judicial prerogatives . Each administrative level - regional prefecture, diocese, province - the capital, his office, his officials. Imperial power is thus more active at every level, but the payroll of public servants is multiplied by four and the great powers they possess are factors of autonomy and corruption .
Constantine also transformed the organization of the central government which had remained unchanged since the Roman Empire. The praetorian prefect was replaced by the quaestor of the sacred palace who writes the edicts. This leads the sacred consistory, which replaces the board of the emperor. The master of the offices the chief administrative official, arms factories and Scholae Guard, the master of the militia , infantry and cavalry, the Earl of sacred largesse, the treasury and the count of private wealth, the res privata, that is to say the emperor's private box, personal incomes of the latter being mainly income from its vast fields. The big news however is the large increase in civil servants working in central offices. A crowd of notaries and members of the mission and secret agents (agents in rebus also called curios), nearly 1000 employees in the fifth century , and various employees of the Roman Empire are a real bureaucracy . This bloated central government contributes to the isolation of the Emperor of the rest of society. All these institutions remain roughly the same until the early seventh century. For a long time the emperors seek to maintain the separation of civil powers, entrusted to a governor, and military powers entrusted to an edible or dux , he engaged in several provinces. But at the time of Justinian , the reforms are the embryonic meeting of civil and military powers in the themes or exarchates the Byzantine period. Justinian comprising the provinces, only fifteen years, it is true, in the hands of proconsuls propraetors or giving them powers of military, civil and sometimes breaks. Its objective is to curb the growing power of the nobility.
Taxation
Finances are primarily intended to support the army. Annona The military has been gradually introduced from the dynasty of the Severi. To cope with the increased spending, the emperor ordered in 298 that are identified all the resources of the Empire, men, cattle and other natural resources . The census, held every five years , is the basis for determining the basis of a new tax, the capitation. In addition, they must pay jugatio on land. Payment is made either in kind or in cash according to a predetermined correspondence regionally by a price schedule. This tax based on land ownership mainly affects rural residents. It is complemented by an agrarian reform, enforced by the allocation of abandoned land to individuals, which become taxable settlers.
Constantine increases state spending by his administration large, multiple buildings, donations to his protgs and the Church, the luxurious expenditure of the court. He gets the gold necessary by imposing those savings capitation: the chrysargyre is raised every five years on merchants and craftsmen, the parish priest are subject to offer all five gold crown (gold crowns) Senators must fulfill oblatice gold (aurum oblaticium, gold offered on each anniversary imperial) and collatio glebalis every four years .
These reforms align public finances on the circulation of gold, and to restore the entire fourth century despite the increase in expenditure, the price of collusion between the government and upper classes, hoarding of gold, and the ruin of the lower classes .
During the reign of Theodosius , taxation hardens even causing riots ( Antioch in 387). In theory, the income of the res privata must provide the court and imperial family, but a growing share of the fund is devolved to the immense needs of the state. Anastase off some areas of the res privata whose income similar to those of the treasury. He abolished the chrysargyre that struck the trade and industry of the towns, and entrusts the collection of tax officials in cities, relieving the parish priest ruined.
While the circulation of money slows considerably in the West because of the great invasions , increases in the East : Anastasius definitely establishes the payment to the campaigns of the advertiser (and capitatio jugatio) in cash, and buys supplies necessary for the state at prices set by the government. The severity tax provoked popular uprisings, but the death of Anastasius, credit imperial contained a considerable reserve of 320 000 pounds of gold .
The cost of the conquests of Justinian provokes a new round of tax until screw 550. Discontent is high. Indeed, the emperor takes in rural eastern weakened by the ravages of the plague very heavy taxes . The newly reconquered provinces have lost the habit of paying heavy taxes under the administration barbaric unable to collect regularly. They need to resubmit this obligation when they come out completely ruined the wars of conquest. After 550, because of the increasing population in the empire of Justinian, the taxes tend to decrease .
Christianity in the Roman world
Questions from the Christianization of the Roman Empire
The growth of Christianity in the Empire is subject to further discussion. Indeed, the sources available to historians make difficult the quantification of the development of Christianity . For many years the idea prevailed until the early fourth century, the provinces of the East are mostly acquired Christianity. In the West, the Mediterranean provinces are most affected by the new religion than others. But everywhere in this part of the Roman Empire, the campaigns remain deeply polytheists . In this context, the conversion of Constantine in 312 would have been a coronation and not a turning point in the history of the Empire . Today the extent of the Christianization of the Empire is called into question . Robin Lane Fox think that paganism is always very well established in the early fourth century and that Christianity is still a minority phenomenon . According to him, Christians represent only 312, that 4-5% of the total population of the Empire. The debate is particularly delicate, behind the numbers, there is a strong ideological challenge.
However, some points seem established. Inequality of Christianity across regions and the backwardness of Gaul in particular are accepted by all. To a lesser degree, the situation is the same in Spain and Italy, but with additional strong regional differences. It is thought that Rome , the city's most Christianized Italy, perhaps a little less than 10% of the population are Christians in 312. The study of Egyptian papyrus allows the figure of 20% of Christians in Egypt in 312 . In Asia Minor, a proportion of 1 / 3 as Christians is possible, 10 to 20% in Africa. In 312, Christians are a minority in the Empire .
The issue of development of Christianity has long been posed in terms of confrontation with the ancient culture. Lower Empire, in this perspective, seen as a period of triumph of the new faith face to traditional religions or mystery cults. Today, examining the sources pushing to change that view. Christianity has nurtured the ancient culture and used it to develop: it has not destroyed the ancient culture . G. Stroumsa explains the transition from paganism to Christianity in the Roman Empire through a process of internalization of worship. A significant portion of the inhabitants of the empire no longer recognizes itself in ritualistic religions and seeks a belief that is more personal. The rise of religions of the book through the generalization of the codex is a new accelerator to care for oneself in this asceticism and reading, the passage of the civic religion religions communa Utair and private .
Christianity becoming the religion of the Roman Empire in the fourth century, used to justify an authoritarian political order that exercised in the name of God. It also allows the eyes of the emperors to ensure the cohesion of the empire. It becomes an essential element of the civilization of late antiquity. The consequence is the exclusion of all other religious beliefs. Non-Christians are now disconnected from the Roman ideal . For the Western Church, Roman and Christianity are so interrelated that the bishops find it normal to defend the empire against the barbarians .
The great persecution
In the early fourth century, with the Tetrarchy, the fight against the religion of Christians, but still growing minority , gives rise to widespread persecution last. In 303, Diocletian and his colleagues launched several edicts against Christians giving birth to the great persecution, after forty years of relative calm that followed the reign of Gallienus (260-268). Governors and municipal judges must seize and burn the furniture and books of worship. Early in the year 304, an edict ordering all citizens to make a general sacrifice to the Empire, under threat of death or sentenced to hard labor in mines. Persecution is unevenly applied to the empire, quickly abandoned in the West after 305, more long and severe in the East . In 311 just before his death, Galerius orders to stop the persecution, calling on Christians to pray for his salvation and that of the Empire . This call is in line with the Roman religious tradition, and acknowledges the usefulness of the Christian Civic .
One consequence of the great persecution for the Christian world is the Donatist schism from 307. The Donatists refused the validity of the Sacraments issued by the bishops who had failed during the persecutions of Diocletian, a position condemned in 313 at the Council of Rome. The schism continues in Roman Africa until the end of the century.
This last persecution brand more than other Eastern Christian tradition: the hagiography positions during the persecution of Diocletian and his successors the martyrdom of saints legendary existence . Another sign of the significant impact on the Christian memory is the choice of the Coptic era or "Era of Martyrs" beginning on the date of accession of Diocletian.
The Christian emperors
Constantine , initially a follower of Sol Invictus (the Unconquered Sun), converted to Christianity during his campaign against Maxentius in 312. Some historians believe that Constantine was between 312 and early 320, pass through his personal beliefs through an intermediate phase and try to reconcile Christianity and a deity from which emanate all the gods, Divinity, identified from the middle of the third century to the Sun. Indeed, in the period 312-325, coins represent the Sun, a companion of the emperor, or confused his image with his. Few currencies show Christian symbols ( chrism , labarum ) at the end this time . One may wonder why Constantine converted to a religion still a minority in the empire for personal reasons , or for ideological reasons. In 313, the Edict of Milan proclaimed religious freedom and plans to make the Christians that their property had been confiscated during the great persecution of Diocletian. This conversion is the problem of relations between the Church and the power . Requested by the African bishops on the feud donastique Constantine organized in 313 (or 314) the first council for the bishops to decide between them. He summons and chairs the Council of Nicaea in 325 which recognizes Christ as God and man unanimously, even Arius agreeing with this doctrine . But the latter continued his preaching and was excommunicated. Constantine is exiled, then recalled some years later. Arians adopt positions very favorable to the imperial power, recognizing the right to decide religious questions of authority. Constantine ends up closer to that form of Christianity and was baptized on his deathbed by a priest Arian . This conversion to Arianism is contested by the Catholic Church and by some historians. His son, Constantius II is a convinced Arian. He does not hesitate to persecute Christians Nicene more than the pagans. Despite its interventions in many councils , it fails to adopt a creed which satisfies the Arians and Orthodox Christians. With the exception of Valens, his successors, anxious to civil peace, observe a strict neutrality between religion and the Arian Nicene. The defeat of Adrianople face Visigoths Arians allows Orthodox Catholics go on the offensive. Ambrose of Milan , wanting to defend the Nicene Creed against the Arians calls the heresy of double treason to the Church and to the Empire .
Gratien eventually move towards a condemnation of Arianism under the combined influence of his colleague Theodosius and Ambrose. The Emperor of the pars orientalis, in 380, the Edict of Thessaloniki, made Christianity a state religion. Like his colleague, he promulgated laws against heretics . He summons a council at Aquileia in 381, led by Ambrose. Arians are excommunicated two bishops. At that time, the Catholic Church has become strong enough to resist the imperial court. After the death of Gratian , the Arian party was again very influential at court. At his instigation, a law was promulgated on 23 January 386, which provides the death penalty for anyone who would oppose freedom of conscience and religion . Ambrose refuses to grant a basilica to the Arians strong extramural support from the people and the upper echelons of Milan. The imperial court is obliged to yield. With men like Ambrose, the Church can emancipate themselves from the imperial tutelage, especially in the West and even assert the primacy of the spiritual over the temporal recalling the Emperor's duties as a Christian. However, Christians also need the police to uphold their views. And Porphyry of Gaza gets the Empress Eudoxia , she makes her husband close by Arcadius polytheistic temples in Gaza.
Pagans, heretics and Jews become second class citizens, burdened with legal and administrative disability . In law, Theodosius said: "We take away their very right to live according to Roman law. " . However, Judaism is the only non-Christian religion to remain lawfully in 380 . On the bottom of Judeophobia old Greco-Roman grafted a Judaism itself Christian, accusing Jews of being deicides and have rejected the Gospel message. This does not Theodosius to impose on the Bishop of Callinicum in Mesopotamia to rebuild at its own expense, the synagogue that his followers were destroyed, much to the indignation of Ambrose of Milan
Christianization and Roman
After the conversion of Constantine, Christianity grew rapidly in the Roman Empire but still unevenly according to the provinces. It is also in many cases a superficial Christianity that combines many pagan practices. The evangelistic campaigns in the West is progressing very slowly. In Gaul, the missionaries determined action plays a significant role in the adoption of the religion of Christ. Saint Martin remains the figurehead of the evangelization of Gaul. In the West, Latin replaced Greek as the liturgical language in the same period, reflecting the loss of the use of Greek in this part of the Empire. Egypt is regarded as a Christian until the late fifth century.
The organization of the Church
The Church is organized following the administrative model of the Empire. The diocese officiates where the bishop , is the city, except Africa and Egypt . This is designated by members of the community and neighboring bishops. The Christianized aristocracy often occupies the office of bishop. Due to the failure of municipal elites, fleeing responsibilities too heavy and too expensive, they become the first characters of the city the fifth and sixth centuries. In the East, so they become partners of imperial power. They return to the Church a part of the evergetism dcurional for helping the poor and sick. If necessary, they set themselves up as the defender of their city against the barbarians threatened. In Rome , they take precedence over urban prefects . In Egypt, for cons, the bishops are usually chosen from the monks. Some combine the role of bishop and abbot of the monastery as Abraham Hermonthis about the year 600. Many popes Coptic Christians are the Monastery of St. Macarius located in Wadi El-Natron. Today, the hierarchy of the Church Coptic is still recruiting among the monks .
From the fourth century, a new character comes off the bishop , the priest. It gradually gets the right to baptize, preach and teach. While the cities of the West are losing their population because of supply difficulties and insecurity, a new cell develops rural religious sixth century, the parish in which he officiates. The parish eventually force the mesh administrative base of the Middle Ages .
Above the bishops is the metropolitan bishop who sits in the chief town of the province and whose authority includes the whole of it. From the Council of Constantinople in 381, appear primates that include several provinces under their authority, in the West, Rome and Carthage , in the East, Constantinople , Alexandria and Antioch. During the fourth century, the siege of Rome began to establish its rule throughout the Empire. In 370, Valentinian I said irrevocable decisions of the pope in Rome. Pope Damasus (366-384) is the first prelate to describe his diocese Apostolic because it was created by the apostle Peter , considered the leader of the apostles. The papal authority has truly become sovereign only from Leo the Great around 450 , which will not prevent the emperors of the East to use force to impose their views on several popes theological. But this should not be forgotten that during late antiquity, the Church is not a homogeneous whole. Each city has its rituals, its saints, its liturgical language, reflecting the diversity of the Empire.
The emperors give members of the clergy of many privileges. They are exempted from tax benefits imposed on citizens. Bishops are recognized powers of civil court. People continued to benefit from the asylum , thereby removing them from the imperial justice. Finally, the clerics gradually beyond the ordinary courts and are thus placed above the law. Constantine gave the Church a legal personality that allows him to receive gifts and bequests. This allows it to increase its material power. In the fifth century, it has huge areas that may depend on the charitable institutions of the Church. The development of institutions allows it to occupy a void left by the systems of redistribution pagans, by focusing on the poor as such and not as citizens or clients . In both East and West, the Church can be found, however, faces a paradox: it is rich, but poverty advocates as ideal.
Monasticism
In late antiquity, the monasticism , born in the third century is experiencing a boom first. The first monks appear in Egypt, south of Alexandria. The radical withdrawal of the world that advocate early hermits , Antoine and Pachomius , is a real break with the political and social ideal Greco-Roman city. This does not preclude the hermit then cenobitism to grow in the deserts of the East. Pourtant il semble que le vrai fondateur du mode de vie cnobitique soit Pacme. In the early fourth century, he established the first community Tabennae, an island on the Nile, halfway between Cairo and Alexandria. He founded eight other monasteries in the region during his life, totaling 3,000 monks.
Western clerics who come to their return to East propagate the ideal monasticism. The first religious institutions appear to the Western Empire from the late fourth century: the Abbey of Saint-Martin Marmoutier , Honorat at Lerins and multiple foundations from the sixth century. From the first experiments elaborated many monastic rules. Among these, the rule of St. Benedict is for a great future in the West.
With the support of Justinian I, monasticism is of great importance in the East. Refuge moral power of attraction is such that it distracts from tax and public service part of the forces of the Empire, and became a genuine power-cons will manifest during the crisis of iconoclasm. In the West, monasticism receive a decisive boost in the Carolingian dynasty. In all the countries formerly Roman monasteries play a valuable role of preservers of ancient culture.
Attitudes and religious practices
It was during the Late Antiquity what fixed the organization of the Christian calendar. Constantine chose to celebrate Christ's birth, Christmas , Dec. 25, the day of the celebration of the god Sol Invictus , the Unconquered Sun . Easter is a movable feast like Passover. Her marriage date is different from a Christian community to another. During the fast of Lent that precedes it, the catechumens, adults preparing for baptism celebrated during the night of Easter. Constantine also prohibits many activities on Sunday, the day dedicated to Christian worship. The Christian calendar with Christian holidays, cutting time during the week finally supplanted the Roman calendar in the late fifth century . By cons, throughout Late Antiquity, the counting of years is from an old test: the founding of Rome ( 753 BC. ), the first Olympics ( 776 BC. J. - C. ) or even the era of Diocletian. In the sixth century, Dionysius the Small develops a Christian statement from the year of birth of Christ. This new reckoning comes into action at the eighth century.
In terms of attitudes, the Christianity brought a big change in the vision of the divine world. The Romans had always accepted without much resistance the non-Roman deities. Christianity, religion monotheism , stands out as the only true faith which professes the one true God. The other deities and religions are reduced to the rank of idols or error. This position has as a consequence the rise of Christian religious intolerance in the fourth century, which is due to address apocalyptic some Christian communities and their eschatological expectations, and the imperial political power . The Church multiply adjectives to define: katholicos, that is to say universal orthodoxos is professing to say the only true faith . Thus, the Christian Church is made to combat not only pagans, but also Christians professing faith contrary to the assertions of the councils, which are considered from the fifth century as heretics.
Historians pose the question of moral changes induced by Christianity. Christian morality in Late Antiquity focuses primarily on sexuality and love and do not challenge the family hierarchy in place, insisting instead on the need to respect the authority of the pater familias . Religious discourse is generally conservative. Gregory of Nyssa is the only Christian author to condemn slavery, but not because of the plight of slaves. He is actually concerned about the salvation of the slave owners, guilty, according to him, the sin of pride. Augustine denounces torture because of its ineffectiveness and its inhumanity.
Christological Disputes
symbolic representation of the resurrection of Christ. Panel from a Roman sarcophagus, ca 350, Vatican Museums
The first centuries of Christianity are those in which the Christian doctrine elaborated. This development is not without divisions and conflicts. Besides the conflicts rule, dogmatic quarrels are numerous. The Donatists of Africa, the Arian , the Priscillianism the Pelagianism , the Nestorian , the Monophysite doctrines are all condemned as heresy by the early councils ecumenical. Against Arianism, two councils met. In 325 after the first Council of Nicea , the Nicene Creed , as the Latins call credo reads . This is the first formal expression of orthodoxy. He defines God as a unique, three eternal persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. It is an affirmation of the dogma of the Trinity , reiterated at the Council of Constantinople in 381. Jesus Christ is defined as "the only son of God, begotten of the Father, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, the same substance (homoousios) that the Father "The Arians think, them, that is before the Father Son and Holy Spirit and he is their creator . Arianism has many supporters in both East and West. Arian missionaries converted the Goths and Vandals. This raises issues of religious coexistence with the predominantly Nicene Romanized peoples. That is why the Catholic Church has given such weight to conversion and baptism of Clovis , king of the Franks, in the late fifth century. This is the first barbarian king to embrace the Catholic faith and to benefit from the support of the Roman Church.
In the fifth century theological disputes relate to the nature of Christ , human or divine. Nestorianism, defended by the patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius , emphasizes the human nature of Christ. It is condemned by the Council of Ephesus of 431 gathered at the instigation of the Patriarch of Alexandria Cyril. At Antioch , we insists that Jesus is indeed God's perfect but perfect man. It is recalled that his incarnation, which maintains the duality of natures, is the condition for salvation of mankind and that is because the Word of God (Christ) became man, that one can say that Mary is the mother of God . The Monophysite, following the ideas of the monk Eutyches , deny the human nature of Christ. Eutyches preaches that in union with Jesus Christ, the divine nature somehow absorb the human nature . Dioscorus Alexandria nephew and successor Cyrille maintains. The Monophysite are condemned by the Council of Chalcedon of 451 gathered at the initiative of Pope Leo the Great. It takes the view taken by the Council of Nicaea a dual nature of Christ, both fully man and fully God. In the canon of the Council, Christ is recognized "in two natures without confusion, without change, without division and without separation, the difference of the natures being by no means removed because of the union" . The pope found the first place in the religious debate. But monophysitism is very well established in Egypt, Syria and parts of Asia Minor. He resists for two centuries by falling back on local languages, Coptic Egypt and the Syriac in Syria. Justinian also fails to end the religious divisions of the East despite a meeting of council of the "Three Chapters". The role of heresy, is not to underestimate. The religious strife continues in the East until the seventh century. Monophysitism Egyptians raises awareness nationally. The Muslim conquest is favorably accepted as the country hated imperial ascendancy, which superimposed a patriarch and bishops in the Byzantine hierarchy Coptic .
Paganism, superstition and syncretism in a Christian Empire
Throughout the fourth century, the traditional polytheistic religions continue to be practiced, as well as the mystery cults of oriental origin as those of Mithras , of Cybele , of Isis and Serapis despite progressive restrictions. Christian texts that denounce violently, dedications, ex-votos, statements of work in the temples are testimony . Shenoute , who died about 466 and abbot of the monastery in Upper Egypt White, reported in its works its fight against the pagans, whom he calls "the Greeks" . The pagan historian Zosimus tells us also that the new religion was not yet spread throughout the Roman Empire , the pagan having maintained long enough in the villages after its extinction in the cities.
Constantine took little action to prohibit the rites which are the superstitio, that is to say private religious rites, such as nocturnal sacrifices, rituals Haruspex private and other practices identified in witchcraft and magic. It typically manifests the greatest tolerance vis--vis all forms of paganism . In 356, Constantius II prohibits all sacrifices, night and day, closed down the temples isolated and threatens the death penalty for those who practice magic and divination . The Emperor Julian , Paganism acquired, promulgated in 361 an edict of tolerance for worship of their choice. It requires that Christians who had seized the treasures of the pagan cults restore them. His successors are all Christians. In 379, Gratian leaves the burden of Grand Pontiff. From 382, at the instigation of Ambrose , bishop of Milan, the altar of Victory, a symbol to the Senate , is torn from the Curia , while the Vestal Virgins and all priesthoods lose their immunity. On 24 February 391, a law of Theodosius prohibits any person from entering a temple to worship the statues of gods and celebrate the sacrifices, "on pain of death" . In 392, Theodosius banned the Olympic Games related to Zeus and Hera , but also because of the nude body of competitors, the cult of the body and nudity being denigrated by Christianity. Gradually abandoned the crumbling temples. In 435, a decree renewing the ban on sacrifices in pagan temples adds: "If any of these are still" . The renewal of the decree shows that the sacrifices have certainly not disappeared. Ramsay MacMullen think that pagans are still very many . In Egypt , in Anatolia , farmers cling to their old beliefs. Some Christian communities are sometimes evidence of destructive fanaticism vis--vis paganism. They are disowned by the great thinkers of their times, as St. Augustine . The most striking example is the neo-Platonic philosopher Hypatia , torn to pieces in a church and then burned by a mob of fanatics led by Patriarch Cyril , in 415 at Alexandria. Temples were destroyed as Serapeum of Alexandria from 391, the temple of Caelestis, the great Carthaginian goddess heiress of Tanit in 399. Yet the State does not implement systematic destruction of pagan temples and their art. Instead, official decrees reflect the will of the state to keep this artistic heritage . Many edicts of the reign of Justinian to remove the heathen right to pursue civil or military and teach, which has resulted in the closure of the philosophical school of Athens. An edict of 529 further aggravates the situation by imposing the conversion to Christianity .
Moreover, Christianity itself is steeped in ancient pagan rituals. Some traditional festivals are still celebrated in Roman late fifth century, as the festival of Lupercalia devoted to fertility and love. To eradicate it, Pope Gelasius I. in 495 decided to celebrate the feast of Saint Valentine , February 14, a jo ur before the feast of Lupercalia to celebrate love. This is therefore an attempt to Christianize a pagan rite. Africans continue to celebrate anniversaries and banquets to the dead directly on the graves. In the sixth century, Caesarius of Arles condemned in his sermons to his followers pagan practices that persist in the people. Wearing amulets, worships trees and sources have not disappeared from southern Gaul. The clerics' complaints are numerous, until the end of Late Antiquity. In the East, the expectations of the Council in Trullo (Constantinople, 691-692) wilt customs that remain: celebrations of ancient pagan festivals, songs in honor of Dionysus during the grape harvest, lit bonfires on the new moon, etc. . Pilgrimages are increasing throughout the Roman Empire. In the sixth century, the tomb of Martin of Tours attracts large crowds . This naive faith in a miraculous cure matches the mentality of campaigns and promotes their adherence to Christianity. The bishops see it as a means of ensuring the visibility of their diocese. Miraculous cures are used as an argument to convince the crowds of the simple truth of the Nicene faith. The miracles supposed to have been made by the saints after their death are carefully documented and disseminated as a propaganda tool. Around the cult of saints, a series of similar superstitions beliefs grows old. People looking to be buried near the holy because they believe that their holiness is spreading across the land in which they are based . The cult of saints gives birth to pilgrimages bearers of prosperity for the host cities.
The evolution of the economy
The Roman economy is predominantly agricultural economy. Overlooks the Mediterranean trilogy production: wheat , grapes ( wine ), olive ( oil ). The Sicily , the Africa of Egypt , and Gaul and Spain produce cereals which supply the major cities of the Empire. The breeding of horses, essential for gaming and the army is concentrated in Spain , in Africa , in Syria , in Thrace and Asia. At that time, two sectors of the economy can be described as industrial. This is the mining and production of terra sigillata. This is related to the export of agricultural products. So in the major producing regions found the main ceramic workshops. Forty arms factories are scattered throughout the empire. They are among the industries in the state, like factories armor, clothing for soldiers and dyeing .
Trade routes are the same since the beginning of the Roman Empire. Only the establishment of Constantinople creates a new transport corridor. The Roman Empire banned the export of products that could help the economy of enemy powers. The export of metals, weapons and food to the Germans and the Persians is prohibited. International trade is very important: slaves, the incense from Yemen, the Indian world of spices, perfumes and silks from China . It primarily benefits the cities boundaries of the Empire: Antioch , Carthage in connection with the caravan of Africa. Internal trade becomes very active after the crisis of the third century.
For years historians have presented the economy of Late Antiquity as declining. However, major technical innovations are diffused in the fourth century as the wheel plow , the reaper Gallic or water mill . The crafts are not aware of decline. This gave the impression of economic crisis is the increase of abandoned land, especially in the West but also in the East . Recent excavations and a re-reading of ancient texts suggest that the phenomenon of land deserted and abandoned villages is, ultimately, lower than previously thought. According to Pierre Jaillet , regression, including that caused by invasions, civil wars and raids of robbers, is not as widespread nor as continuous as previously thought by historians.
In the fourth century, the great metropolises of the East and the West regain their lost momentum during the crisis of the third century. The large trade in luxury goods is still very prosperous. Continental traffic seems to have somewhat etiolated . Trier on the limes, which became an imperial residence, is experiencing unprecedented prosperity. However we can see that the monetary policy of Constantine increases inequalities between rich and poor. It maintains the current gold coin, the solidus , that only the rich can hoard but allowed to devalue the currencies of brass necessary to daily conversation which reduces the purchasing power of the masses . The creation of third solidus does not fill the gap .
In 395, as we begin the final partition between East and West, the West's economy remains fragile. Only a few shops and some imperial centers of ceramic production still retain a real dynamism. The trade is run by Jewish settlements and Syrian merchants. Campaigns depend for survival of the institution of Germanic peoples, especially in this northern Gaul and Illyricum. The economy of the East, by cons, is thriving. It is the economic and commercial center of the Roman world. Agriculture is thriving.
The barbarian invasions in the West does not transform economic structures. They slow the big business and the urban economy but little affect rural areas. For cons, the reconquest of Justinian disrupts economic and social structures in areas affected by military campaigns . The Byzantine armies ravage the conquered regions. The land is devastated and no longer produce anything for years. In the East, next to the small property, the rural economy is in the hands of large estates. Large families, including families of senatorial Constantinople own land scattered throughout the East. The state and the emperor manage vast areas just former state property, property of successive royal families and forfeitures. Finally, the bishops and Christian charitable institutions have received significant donations that were made by large landowners. But there is a wide difference in income between the bishoprics . After 500, large areas of the economy is weakened by the scarcity of labor, especially slave labor. So the large estates lost importance in favor of small property.
The evolution of society and cities
The ruling classes
From the fourth century the differences in law between honestiores and humiliores increase. The ruling classes are structured and expand. In the fourth century the prefectures of the city and the courtroom in addition to the consulate as charges for entering the nobilitas. In the first part of the fourth century, the nobilitas experiencing a sudden enlargement. Constantine took the decision to abolish the equestrian order , whose members come in almost all the senatorial order. The number of senators from 600 to 2000 members . The Senate created in Constantinople also has 2000 members. The East senatorial order was recruited among the notables of Greek provincial cities. There is growing rapidly in the reign of Constantius II . The upper stratum of the Senate then adopted the name of clarissimi to distinguish themselves from the mass of the nobility. The clarissimi are primarily large landowners. They often show a refined culture and participate in the literary renaissance of the time. For years historians and archaeologists have believed, given the existence of large ornate mansion in the countryside, the nobilitas had done in the fourth century a return to the earth. Recent research show that most clarissimi live most of the year in town and not traveling on occasion in their fields. Around 370, in legal terminology, the nobilitas merges with the Senate status . The importance of the bureaucracy is such that the fourth century, the administrative career has replaced the army as a means of social advancement .
The nobilitas Roman is also characterized by its resistance to the adoption of Christianity. Attached to the worship of ancestors, the Greco-Roman culture, philosophy, literature she spreads a numerous anti-Christian . However, in the middle of the fourth century, the great Roman families gradually convert to Christianity.
The Barbarian Invasions do not prevent the senatorial aristocracy to maintain its real estate value and its influence until the eighth century. It monopolizes the charges of Count and Bishop . In Gaul and Spain, it mixes slowly with the Germanic aristocracy in the sixth and seventh centuries gradually giving rise to the medieval nobility.
The deteriorating status of citizens of the Empire
The order dcurional undergoing significant changes. The role and status of the parish priest seem to have degraded. The erosion of revenues in the order no longer allows decurions to meet their obligations. Cities therefore suffer the decline of the evergetism private and that of their own resources. The decurions become responsible for their own property on the heavy taxes which the emperor and requires that they should collect. This requirement makes them particularly unpopular. The creation of a body collector by Valentinian I is not sufficient to relieve the difficult task . As a result, citizens are fleeing the city magistrates. To recruit new decurions , Constantine changed the law to local city. Residents of a city that can afford it must become decurions. Moreover, the burden becomes hereditary dcurionale . This does not prevent the financial situation of the cities continue to deteriorate. Many decurions fleeing their heavy burdens inherited, either by becoming a monk or priest, or by being recruited into the provincial, prefectural, or diocesan, or by withdrawing into the rural areas. Threats of confiscation of their property do not change very little .
Corporations are experiencing the same evolution. Under Constantine I, the state intervenes directly to impose the constraint and heredity . The navicular are required to transport the military annona under penalty of serious criminal sanction. Once their service to the state provided they have the right to engage in the transportation of goods for their own account. The obligation for a son to take over the trade of his father is also introduced to the imperial workshops. Convicts and vagrants are also forcibly recruited. This brings employment status forced the workers of the workshops of the condition of slaves while they are in theory citizens .
The small property continues to decline in the fourth century. In fact, smallholders are becoming increasingly difficult to meet the fiscal requirements of the Empire. The status of the colon becomes common in rural areas. Again, the settlers have no right to leave their land and son are forced to resume operations father. As for corporations, this inertia is linked to social concerns have secure tax revenue. Little by little, the peasant becomes attached to his land. Under Theodosius , when the master sold the land he sold with the colon. The condition of farmers is already close to serfdom medieval. But again, there are notable differences between the eastern and the western part of the Empire. The most populous East suffers less colonists. A small and middle peasantry continues owners everywhere and seems even a majority in Syria . After 500, the attachment of Eastern settlers to their land is less stringent. Their condition is similar to that of the small owner. A new category expands, that of the 'lessees' land grant in exchange for low rent and even rent-free. The consequence is the increasing number of small owners in the East throughout the sixth century .
Christianity does not remove the bondage. In the fourth century, Constantine sought to soften their condition. The Church encourages and promotes postage decent treatment of slaves but slavery as an institution is not questioned. Caesarius of Arles had only limited the punishment of a slave to 39 strokes per day. In the early fifth century, Melanie , a rich Roman, decides to liberate all the slaves in his fields. Several thousands of them refuse the largesse. Indeed, the condition of small farmers at that time was so bad that a slave treated with humanity has nothing to envy . There is almost no difference between a settler, in theory legally free, and a slave in the fourth and fifth centuries.
The poor face the atrocities of the State
To return the taxes necessary to maintain the army and bureaucracy, tax agents and secret police are particularly tough on the most humble. They therefore call for the protection of powerful local bosses. While under the Early Empire boss's role was to provide a harmonious relationship between government and citizens, from the fourth century BC. AD , it is leveraging its influence and status to shield its customers with the requirements of the law . Thus, it diverts a portion of the state authority. We can see again, in Genesis, will be the feudal relations between lords and peasants. The emperors, who see the practice of patronage in an attack on the authority of the State and a loss of income, are trying to oppose this practice, in vain. A constitution of 415 settlers established under the fiscal responsibility of the master, indicating a shift of power.
The revolt is another response by the exigencies of the empire. Tax collection by decurions sometimes leads to local uprisings in Syria. The revolt of Bagaudes in Gaul, one of Circumcellions Africa are examples of challenges to imperial demands.
The barbarians in the Roman world
Since the third century BC. AD , the Roman Empire thrives on contributions barbarians. The fundamental role of federated peoples in the Roman army has already been mentioned. They also inhabited the northern regions of the Empire in danger of depopulation. Decrees prohibiting Valentinian I. Roman-barbarian marriages show that there was already a significant crossbreeding at this time. Cases of officers barbarians living in the Empire and Romanized are frequent in the fourth century.
Stilicho is an excellent example of assimilation into Roman society. There is Vandal by his father, probably commanding a squadron of cavalry under Valens , and Roman by his mother, a province of Pannonia . He rose through the ranks of the army. Around 384 , he married Serena , daughter of Honorius, brother of Theodosius I, and adopted by him during the death of his father, proving that it is part of the Imperial Palace. After the victory of Theodosius at the battle of the Cold River in 394, Stilicho took the title of magister peditum. On the death of Theodosius, he became the guardian of two of the deceased son but he is first that of Honorius who was 11 years old in 395. It is the policy of coexistence with the Barbarians and willingness to keep united the two parts of the Empire seems to have guided the decision of the emperor. A barbarian can access the highest offices except assume the imperial purple. Gondebald and Ricimer also reflect the will of the patricians of barbarian origin to serve the imperial Roman Empire without ambition.
The barbarian invasions of the fifth century do not disappear at once, the structures of the Roman West. The Barbarians did in fact represent only 5% of the population of the West . The prohibition of mixed marriages shows the fear of losing their identity. In fact, apart from the Vandals , Anglo-Saxon and later the Lombards , the land ownership changes only a few hands. The conversion to Catholicism allows the fusion of the barbarians the Romans. This merger took place largely in favor of Roman. The first barbarian monarchies are very respectful of the institutions they admire Roman . At Ravenna , in Toledo , courses Gothic speak Latin. So the Roman survives to the Roman Empire.
Cities
The city remains the heart of the Roman. The traditional areas of Roman life, the baths , the circus and amphitheater are visited until the late sixth century and even beyond to Constantinople. But many ancient monuments are deteriorating as public finances are insufficient to provide for their maintenance, especially since the period of late antiquity is rich in earthquakes. Fifteen imperial constitutions from 321 to 395 are devoted wholly or partly the problem of restoration of old buildings. The cities of the Empire have undergone many changes. They build walls to III and IV centuries to protect themselves. The great architectural novelty is the construction of Christian buildings, a basilica , a baptistery and the home of the bishop , part of material used comes from old abandoned buildings. The new imperial residences: Trier , Milan , Sirmium , Nicomedia benefit from the presence of troops and emperors.
Five cities dominated by the number of their inhabitants Late Antiquity. This is Rome , Constantinople, Alexandria , Antioch and Carthage. These last three have a population estimated between 100,000 and 150,000 inhabitants. In Rome, the walls built by Aurelian is amended by Maxentius and Honorius to improve efficiency. The aqueducts , bridges and roads are maintained. The Flavian Amphitheatre , struck by lightning in 320 and three earthquakes, is regularly repaired . The emperors of the West, however, did not have the finances needed to maintain all the monuments of ancient imperial capital. The numerous studies are insufficient to prevent deterioration of ancient monuments. Majorian (457-461) prohibits city officials to authorize the removal of stones at public buildings, proving that the practice tended to develop. But nothing helped. After the end of the Western Roman Empire, ancient monuments are the career people . The growing role of Christianity led to the construction of basilicas such as the Lateran , of St. Peter or St. Paul Outside the Walls , the Catacombs , the baptistery and episcopal palace are enriched by the installation of marble, mosaics and enamels . Until 410, Rome has about 800,000 inhabitants. The population is around 300 to 400 000 people throughout the fifth century. This high level of population can be maintained through the proper functioning of the advertiser. 40% of the food of the inhabitants of Rome is provided by the state . The loss of Africa in 439 causes the end of the payment of annona Rome. The population then decreases slowly. In the sixth century, the Gothic war between Justinian and the Ostrogoths is dropped to 80 000 .
Constantinople, inaugurated by Constantine in 330 is built on a natural defensive site which makes it virtually impregnable while Rome is constantly under the threat of the Germans . It is also close to the borders of the Danube and the Euphrates , where military operations to contain the Goths and the Persians are the most important. She was finally located in the heart of the lands of ancient Hellenic civilization. Constantine built the model of Rome's seven hills, fourteen urban areas, a capitol , a forum , a Senate. At first, it allows the introduction of pagan temples but soon the town became almost exclusively Christian and has only Christian religious buildings. In recent decades, the city became one of the largest metropolises of the Roman East thanks to its political role and its economic activities and tax exemptions granted to the inhabitants . From Constantine, the city has 100,000 inhabitants. It reached 200 000 inhabitants in the late fourth century . Constantinople , located outside the areas of conflict, saw its population increase. The number of its inhabitants is discussed: 800 000 inhabitants during the fifth century for Bertrand Lancon , 4 to 500 000 for A. Ducey, M. Kaplan and B. Martin . The beautification of the city is the main site of the emperors from Constantine. It will built the Imperial Palace , the Hippodrome , the new name given to the Roman circus, the Church of Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) . Then the city grew westward. The chamber enclosing 700 hectares of origin no longer sufficient, Theodosius II surrounds new walls between 412 and 414, bearing the city's area to 1450 hectares . The Council of Chalcedon in 451, in its twenty-eighth canon, gives the city of Constantinople the title of "New Rome" , which makes its bishop, the patriarch of Constantinople , the second character of the Church. This further contributes to give the city its independence as the capital of Byzantine Empire.
The intellectual and artistic life
Education
In the fourth century, many schools appear, and this in all regions. Teaching is based on ancient knowledge. The development of Christianity does not undermine the foundations of education. Students continue to learn to read and write in Greek and Roman mythology. The texts of Homer are still learned by heart by generations of students . During his short reign, Julian prohibits teachers in 362 Christians from teaching. It is based on the principle that one can not honestly explain mythological texts that we do not believe . However, Christians believe that traditional education is essential for the formation of the spirit of a religion based on the written word. They therefore continue to follow him even if he transmits knowledge considered pagan. The course of Augustine is representative of the Roman scholar. He left his hometown of Thagaste for Madaura to follow the teaching of a grammarian, then he went to Carthage in 370 to receive instruction from a rhetorician . The universities of Carthage, Bordeaux , Milan and Antioch have a good reputation. The most famous are those of Rome and Constantinople to the philosophy and law, Alexandria for mathematics and medicine, Athens for philosophy. The cities are engaged in fierce competition to bring teachers the best known .
The world of letters
The end of bilingualism Greco-Roman
During late antiquity, bilingualism Greco-Latin High Empire is demolished. Yet during the fourth century, Latin was a spectacular breakthrough in the East because of the growing legal and administrative techniques. Greek is spoken by him as to the educated classes of the West. But from the late fourth century, knowledge of the Greek back considerably to the west. In the early fifth century, Augustine , considered the greatest intellectual of the West of his time, did not use. To help the understanding of Greek texts and their translations, many Greek-Latin glossaries are copied . Translators are the Latin equivalent, consubstantialis. Language problems only add to the religious strife. Thus, when the Council of Ephesus in 431, a misunderstanding based on the difference between the terms "person" and "nature" in Latin and Greek turns violent confrontation .
In the East, Latin continues as an administrative language until the time of Justinian. The Justinian code of 534 is also written in that language, symbol of the Roman. But from 535 and publication of the first Novell, new laws required by Justinian , the official language is Greek. The laws are more in Latin than in regions Latinos, the Dacia , the Moesia , the Scythian and the administrative and military in Africa . The division of the Empire induces sharing language. Therefore, the translations are multiplying. They are made by great scholars bilingual: Jerome who translated the Bible into Latin in the late fourth century, the writings of Greek physicians Hippocrates , Dioscorides , Galen , Oribasius are compiled and translated the fifth century. Late Antiquity and see copies and translations abound to meet the demand of public libraries, bishoprics and monasteries.
Within this division is emerging linguistic diversity of indigenous languages more important than it seems. In the East, affecting mainly the Greek coastal cities through the administration, commerce and Christianity. Elsewhere, the Greek language from collectors, the Chalcedonian orthodoxy against the peasantry gained Nestorian or Monophysite , is ignored. By the second half of the fourth century official documents must be translated into Coptic in Egypt. Coptic literature develops: hagiographic stories about the most venerated saints of the country, as EU rules monastic texts ... The texts of the Fathers of the Church , written in Greek in origin are also translated into Coptic . The Syriac gives birth to a brilliant literature that proves that the Hellenization of Syria is still only superficial in eight centuries of occupation Greek or Greco-Roman .
Culture and ancient Christian culture
The philosophy Greek is still very important during late antiquity. Aristotle and Plato still exert a great influence among the intellectual elite. Plotinus (205-270) and Porphyry are the most illustrious representatives of Neoplatonism. For Plotinus, the universe can be explained by "Chain of Being." At the top there is the One, the Good, from which emanate from various degrees of inferior beings, until the matter. The man can enter into union with the One in moments of ecstasy . Letters can be taught by the Academy of Athens until 529, when it was closed by Justinian. Gregory Nazianzen rubs shoulders with the future emperor Julian. Alexandria remains a major cultural center. Great intellectuals like Ammonius , Hypatia , a woman who heads the neo-Platonic school of Alexandria provide radiation of the Egyptian city. In the early sixth century , Boethius , Hellenistic and Christian education, was appointed consul by the Ostrogoth Theodoric in 510 and 522. It tries to create a center of intellectual culture in the courtyard of the barbarian king . The Middle Ages, until the thirteenth century , knows Aristotle by his Latin translations. Christianity is influenced by cultural and religious movements of his time, like Gnosticism or Manichaeism. Augustine interprets Christianity in the light of Neoplatonism . He sees no contradiction between Christianity and philosophy of Plato. It reconciles the Platonic concept of "eternal ideas" with Christianity, considering them as part of the eternal God.
Books and Literature
The codex , which appeared in the first century in the Roman Empire , generalizes and replaces the volumen, roll-to-use hard . The book became an object handy, easy to transport, store, read by a single individual. But it remains an expensive object, even if the number of volumes in circulation increases dramatically. The use of parchment , stronger but more expensive covers the expense of papyrus. The portion of the volumen codex , sometimes very small, results in the loss of some ancient texts that are no longer available . Instead of writing in society is becoming increasingly important. In the field of law, the major codes like that of Theodosius and Justinian , compilations of lawyers in the fourth and fifth centuries further strengthen the legitimacy of laws. Christianity itself as a religion of the book , contrary to traditional religions. It will become the religion of the "pocket book" . Silent reading creates a form of internalization of thought and, thus, creates a new spirituality .
The literature of the period is predominantly Christian, at least among the texts that we are known and managed. The correspondence of some great minds of the time, very well preserved, provides a detailed understanding of attitudes in Late Antiquity. Greek, Libanius 1544 letters left and John Chrysostom , 236. In Latin, it is 900 letters of Symmachus , 225 Augustine, 146 Sidonius Apollinaris , 850, Pope Gregory the Great . The rhetoric used by the Greek Fathers of the Church , whether to write sermons , explaining the sacred texts or attempt to persuade non-Christians. The hagiography multiplies. While recounting the lives of saints in the manner of Suetonius and Plutarch , it focuses on the virtues of Christian saints to make examples for the reader. In the sixth and seventh centuries, the genus increases the hagiographic accounts of miracles, which outweigh the moral example . It is therefore not surprising that the major work of late antiquity is a religious work. It is the City of God of Augustine of Hippo , completed in 423. The author's reply to critics of the masterful way that made Christianity the religion responsible for the sack of Rome in 410. In his theory of two cities, he developed the idea that Rome is a city land a mortal threat. The city of Christians is the kingdom of God that awaits them after death. They should not tie their Christian faith in the existence of Rome even though they must serve the Empire loyally. The city of God will play a key role in the West Middle Ages to the seventeenth century .
The arts
Wax painting and tempera on wood fig. The hieratic figures of the two characters are typical of late antiquity.
Since the work of Alois Riegl and Heinrich Wlfflin, the late Roman art, long considered decadent, have found a dignity equal to that of the Roman Empire. The first characteristic of the period is that there is not an art but different styles in different regions and centuries. The second characteristic is that, despite the growing influence of Christianity, there is no early Christian art specific. The themes are certainly Christians, but the forms and techniques are those of ancient art in general. Coptic art is, for example, in the beginning, that of the native Egyptian or similar, both pagan and Christian. It is commonly done by Christians until the sixth century .
The development of the codex that leads to the calligraphy. The mosaics , which adorned the rich homes, becomes a rock art in churches and baptismal from the fourth century. Hagia Constance to Rome and especially the Basilica Sant'Apollinare in class and the Orthodox Baptistery of Ravenna built at the time of Justinian are the leading exemplars. The sculpture is mainly represented by the bas-relief. They are found mostly on sarcophagi. Those of the rich nobles contain a wealth of art.
Sculpture, painting and mosaic art share common features. They must serve the emperor and glorify his power. After the reign of Julian, the performances leave their character portrait of an impersonal figure to represent the emperor with wig and tiara . Tetrarchs already carved porphyry and stored at Venice and the Vatican were carved as doubles. The symbolic representation of the function becomes more important than the person who embodies it. Artists are used to represent the emperor with all the attributes of his power: tiara, halo, scepter. One of the first performances of an emperor enthroned in majesty shows Theodosius I sat between her son and a halo. This representation of the dominus is a model to show Christ in Majesty in the mosaics . Christian iconography is still using at that time as the classic themes, Orpheus and his lyre, peacocks, doves, dolphins. Are beginning to add representations of biblical scenes. The cross becomes a decorative theme that sixth century. Until then, the chrism , the fish , the vase and bread it preferred .
The Christian basilica is the newest architectural form. It is an adaptation of the Roman basilica. She has a ship that can accommodate the faithful, an apse for the clergy and sometimes a transept front of the apse . However, each region of the late Roman Empire has its own particularity in the arts. The church Coptic of Deir el-Abiad, founded in 440 by Shenoute , which is after Pachomius, the largest monastic authority in Egypt, comes as a basilica with three naves and trefoil apse. It is preceded by a narthex and bordered by another narthex. In decorating, the style of this period is characterized by a bill modeled near the Hellenistic . The Basilica of San Lorenzo Maggiore in Milan , where the chapel Sant'Aquilino, is an example of a basilica plan centered .
 | Chapel Sant'Aquilino, Milan, late fourth century |
 Entrance to the chapel |  The teaching of Jesus to the Apostles |  Christ, detail |  Christ, the Apostles, detail |
 The Apostles, detail |  The Apostles, detail |  Originally, the chapel was entirely covered with mosaics |  Remains of wall mosaics |
Chapel Sant'Aquilino resumed the octagonal baptistery built at the time of Ambrose of Milan. Its original form was perfectly preserved. The number eight in the symbolism of the ancient Fathers of the Church, says the Lord's day, after the seventh, that is to say on Saturday. While the number seven, he recalls the days of creation in the counties Genesis and symbolizes the law given to Moses in the part of the Bible which Christians call the Old Testament. The eight refers to the New Testament which, for Christians, and complete projects from the old law. It refers to the coming of Jesus, his resurrection on the day after Shabbat, the eighth day .
In Greece , architects sometimes build a dome surmounting the basilica. In the sixth century, the most beautiful buildings in the Justinian period are characterized inter alia by splendid domes as in San Vitale in Ravenna, Hagia Sophia (St. Sophia) in Constantinople. The exterior is unadorned. The interior is decorated with magnificent mosaics depicting the glory of Justinian .
The legacy of Late Antiquity
Late Antiquity is for the Western and Mediterranean world, a turning point between a progressively Christianized the ancient world and feudalism whose structures are difficult to establish after the shock of the Germanic invasions ( IV and V century ).
In the West, this period is characterized by the fragmentation of political power and a weakening of the notion of the state, while the imperial idea and the myth of the restoration of the universal power of Rome continue to VI century in a Byzantine Empire that is not Byzantine. Imperial incarnate this idea later in the West, turn into the Carolingian Empire in 800 and Holy Roman Empire of Otto I in 955. The Byzantine Empire was abandoned after Justinian's project to rebuild the Roman Empire , but he remains Romania, heir to his political model to the capture of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453. In the legal field, the codes Theodosius and Justinian are the basis for French lawyers to legitimize the construction of the Capetian monarchy. The principle of an official religion, the Christian religion, a major component of the state , introduced from the fourth century structure public life and consciousness to the twentieth century in Europe. Christianity can not prevail in the country at the cost of a slow acculturation and some religious syncretism whose best example is the cult of saints and relics. During late antiquity appear cracks that divide the Christian world by Catholics, Orthodox and Coptic. From late antiquity to the late Middle Ages, the main manifestations of art glorify the religion of Christ.
The Byzantine Empire is the custodian of ancient culture. The Greek and Latin manuscripts were copied and preserved in libraries. His schools teach ancient culture in a society deeply Christianized yet. Through him and the Arab-Muslim culture that is ancient to the fore in the West in the fifteenth century , giving birth to Humanism and the Renaissance.
References
- Lancon (1997), p. 4.
- After the Arab invasions and Slavic Empire retreated to the area of Hellenic civilization. Ostrogorsky Georges, History of the Byzantine State, Payot, 1977.
- The idea of a decadence of Roman civilization is exposed in two celebrated works, the Considerations on the causes of the greatness of the Romans and Their Decline of Montesquieu in 1734 and in 1776, the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire of Edward Gibbon.
- In The Ancient City See also
Internal Links
- Early Christian art
- Decline of the Western Roman Empire
- Roman Empire
- Expansion of Christianity in the fifth century to the fifteenth century
- Invasions
- Ancient Rome
- Chronology of the Middle Ages how medieval scholars call a lot of late antiquity.
Bibliography
: Source used for this article - Christophe Badel, The Nobility of the Roman Empire. Masks and virtue, Champ Vallon, Seyssel, 2005 ( ISBN 978-2876734159 ).
- Michel Balard, Jean-Philippe Genet, Michel Rouche, Barbarians at the Renaissance, Hachette, Paris, 1973 ( ISBN 2011455405 ).
- Banniard Michel, Genesis of Europe's cultural, Seuil, Paris, 1989 ( ISBN 2-02-010972-7 ).
- Peter Brown :
- (In) The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150-750, WW Norton & Co., New York, 1989 (2nd edition) ( ISBN 0-393-95803-5 );
- (In) The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, 200-1000 AD, Blackwell Publishing, Cambridge, 1996 ( ISBN 0-631-22138-7 ).
- Jean-Michel Carr and Aline Rousselle, changing the Roman Empire, the Severi to Constantine, Seuil, Paris, 1999 ( ISBN 2020258196 )
- Michel Christol and Daniel Nony, the origins of Rome to the barbarian invasions, Hachette, 1974, reissued 2003 ( ISBN 2011455421 ).
- Emilian Demougeot, From unity to division of the Roman Empire 395-410. Essays on the Imperial Government, Maisonneuve, Paris, 1951 (ISBN 845560).
- Roland Delmaire, Institutions of Lower Roman Empire from Constantine to Justinian, Cerf, Paris, 1995 ( ISBN 2-204-05052-0 ).
- Alain Ducey, Michael Kaplan and Bernadette Martin, the medieval Middle East, Hachette, collection "U", Paris, 1978. This book has been renamed The Middle Ages in the East, Byzantium and Islam: the barbarians to the Ottomans in its reissue in 1997. ( ISBN 2011455391 ).
- Peter Garnsey and Caroline Humfress, The Changing World of Late Antiquity, La Dcouverte, Paris, 2004 ( ISBN 2-913944-68-X ).
- Bertrand Lancon:
- The Late Antiquity, PUF, coll. "What do I know? (No. 1455), Paris, 1997 ( ISBN 2130481256 );
- The late Roman World, Armand Colin, Paris, 1992 ( ISBN 2200352344 ).
- The Late Antiquity, PUF, coll. "What do I know? (No. 1455), Paris, 1997 ( ISBN 2130481256 );
- (In) Ramsay MacMullen, Christianity and Paganism In The Fourth Centuries to Eigth, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1999 ( ISBN 0-300-08077-8 ).
- Henri Marrou Irenaeus :
- History of Education in Antiquity, Seuil, Paris, 1948 ( ISBN 2020060159 );
- Roman decadence or late antiquity?, Seuil, Paris, 1977 ( ISBN 2020047136 );
- The Church in Late Antiquity (303-604), Seuil, Paris, 1985 ( ISBN 2020087472 ).
- History of Education in Antiquity, Seuil, Paris, 1948 ( ISBN 2020060159 );
- Paul Little , General History of the Roman Empire, t. 3, Seuil, Paris, 1974 ( ISBN 2020026775 ).
- (De) Alois Riegl , Sptrmische Kunstindustrie, Druck und Verlag der sterreichischen Staatsdruckerei in Wien, Vienna, 1901.
- Paul Veyne , Peter Brown, Aline Rousselle, Genesis of Late Antiquity, Gallimard, Paris, 2001 ( ISBN 2070700267 ).
- Ouriachen Helal, El Housin, 2009, La ciudad durante Btica Antiguedades tarda. Persistencia there mutacin local con la realidad urbana relacin del Mediterrneo y del Atlntico, tesis doctoral, Universidad de Granada, Granada.
Sources Latin and Greek
- Eusebius of Caesarea , Ecclesiastical History External Links
- Texts for the history of Late Antiquity
- The Roman Law Library by Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.
- Historical Atlas of Late Antiquity-Regions
- (In) Late Antiquity by Peter Brown - site of the University of Stanford
- Short History of Roman Empire The Netherlands: 192-476
- Sites on the Late Antiquity selected by the CNRS
- Site on Coptic Egypt
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