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Kristallnacht

A Jewish store ransacked during Kristallnacht.
Stamp of the German Democratic Republic with the words "Niemals wieder Kristallnacht" ("Never Again Kristallnacht").

Kristallnacht (in German Reichskristallnacht) is the pogrom against the Jews of the Third Reich , which took place the night of November 9 to 10 November 1938 and during the day that followed. Presented by officials Nazis as a spontaneous reaction of people after the murder on 7 November 1938 , of Ernst vom Rath , a secretary of the German Embassy in Paris by a young Polish Jew of German origin, Grynszpan The pogrom was actually ordered by the Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler , organized by Joseph Goebbels , and committed by members of the Sturmabteilung (SA), the Schutzstaffel (SS) and the Hitler Youth , supported by the Sicherheitsdienst ( SD), the Gestapo and other police forces.

Throughout the Reich, hundreds of synagogues and places of worship were destroyed, 7,500 shops and businesses operated by Jews vandalized, hundreds of Jews were murdered, hundreds of other committed suicide or died from their injuries and nearly 30,000 were deported to concentration camps : in total, the pogroms and deportations that followed caused the death of 2 000-2 500. Culmination of the wave anti-Semitic that submerged the Germany when the Nazis came to power in January 1933, the "Crystal Night" was one of the first fruits of the Shoah Background: The anti-Semitic measures

A SA next to a poster proclaiming: "Germans! Defend yourself! Do not buy from Jews! , 1933.

The program of the NSDAP , drafted February 24, 1920, provides that "only a brother can be a citizen of race (Volksgenosse).

"and in Mein Kampf , Adolf Hitler proclaimed on numerous occasions his desire to see Germany "free of Jews "(Judenfrei) . Jews are victims of political anti-Semitic from the arrival of the Nazis to power in January 1933. This discrimination is particularly reflected by the boycott of Jewish businesses, wanted by Hitler, organized by Julius Streicher and implemented by the SA , on 1April 1933 , in an operation limited success and widely condemned abroad . During the same month, the Jews are excluded from the public , with few exceptions, by the decree on the restoration of the civil service, 7 April 1933 and its regulations .

Stigma towards Jews is formalized 15 September 1935 during the adoption of the Nuremberg Laws , mainly the "Law for the Protection of Blood and German Honor" ("Blutschutsgesetz") and the "Law on Citizenship Reich "(" Reichsbrgergesetz). These laws and decrees that follow them make the determination of the Jewish character, half-Jewish or Jewish quarter ( Mischling ), based on ancestry, prohibiting sexual relations and marriage between citizens of German or related blood and Jews deprive Jews of German citizenship, as well as most of their political rights, including voting rights , and exclude them from certain professions and education .

The anti-Jewish hardens into 1937, notably through the organization of the exhibition Der ewige Jude (The Eternal Jew "), but especially during the following year . Early 1938, German Jews' passports are confiscated. April 26, Jews were ordered to register all property they own, which facilitates their Aryanization. On 17 August the names worn by Jews are regulated and three additional orders to the Nuremberg Laws defining the notion of Jewish businesses and prohibit Jews from exercising the medical profession . Everything is done to push the Jews to emigrate, whatever the price .

One reason: the assassination of vom Rath

Related Articles: Grynszpan and Ernst vom Rath.
Grynszpan after his arrest in Paris
"With the help of God

.

On 7 November 1938 , a young Jewish German-born Polish refugee in Paris, Grynszpan , aged seventeen years old whose family lives in Hanover has been expelled, October 27, from Germany to Poland , bought a gun then went to the German Embassy in Paris , where he asks to see a manager. Sent to the office of first secretary Ernst vom Rath , Grynszpan pulls on it and seriously injured , , .

It is not the first event of its kind. On 4 February 1936 , a student Talmudist was assassinated in Davos , the head of the Nazi party in Switzerland, Wilhelm Gustloff , without eliciting reaction from authorities or the German population , the circumstances, including the proximity of the Olympic Games Berlin , "demanding to rein in the zealots of the party in Germany .

The attack against the diplomat vom Rath not been any public statements officials Nazis , even if an anti-Semitic campaign in the media orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels as of 8 November 1938 pogroms encouraged the first run by local party Nazi , especially in Hesse-Cassel in Munich or Hanover .

In his diary, November 9, Joseph Goebbels telling the 8th, writes nothing about the attack in Paris, when he spent the late night coffee with Hitler Heck, in his speech of November 8 commemorating the Beer Hall Putsch of 1923 , Adolf Hitler is also silent on the subject. For Saul Friedlander , "obviously, the two Nazi leaders had decided to take action, but considered probably best to wait until the death of Ernst vom Rath, who was badly wounded this unusual silence was the surest indication of the existence of plans to certify a spontaneous outburst of anger of the people .

Vom Rath, at the bedside which Hitler had sent his personal physician, Dr. Karl Brandt , died on 9 November 1938 at 5:30 p.m., and Hitler is notified between 19 and 21 hours , while participates in Munich, the traditional dinner of "comrades in arms," the party's old guard .

The organization of violence: the fiction of the spontaneous reaction

Joseph Goebbels in 1937
"I present the facts to the Fhrer. He decides: allow the demonstrations to continue. Remove the police. Jews must feel for once the anger of the people. This is justice. I immediately gave corresponding instructions to the police and the Party. Can I make a short speech in consequence Party leaders. Storms of applause. Everyone rushes immediately on the phones. Now, the people who will act. "

- Joseph Goebbels , Munich , 10 November 1938

On 9 November 1938 at night in Munich , Adolf Hitler left the meeting without uttering his traditional speech at the Tag der Bewegung (Movement Day) and without the slightest allusion to the death of vom Rath , after a long talk in low voices with Joseph Goebbels , in which the Fhrer seems particularly agitated , . About 22 hours, Joseph Goebbels , in a "brief but incendiary speeches, the participants announced the death of Ernst vom Rath and teaches them that anti-Jewish riots erupted in Hesse-Cassel , and Saxony-Anhalt , adding that the Fhrer had decided that nothing should be done to discourage the movement if it extends over the entire Reich . "The party was to organize and run the business without appearing to be openly engaged .

The "spontaneous popular rage 'put forward by the Nazi leadership is actually the subject of four successive waves of orders: from 22 hours, the regional leaders of the SA shall, by telephone, instructed their subordinates to launch Fires, destruction and violence on a large scale shortly before midnight, Heinrich Mller , head of the Gestapo ordered the police not to oppose the actions against the Jews, to prevent looting and "any other particular overflow" and prepare for the arrest of twenty to thirty thousand Jews, "preferably wealthy" at twenty in the morning, the instructions are supplemented by Mller and clarified by a telex from Reinhard Heydrich to the police and the SD . Heydrich requested to prevent actions that may endanger persons or property in Germany, especially during the burning of synagogues , to authorize the destruction of apartments and shops belonging to Jews, but not the looting, not s to attack foreigners and to find "the necessary personnel to arrest as many Jews, particularly wealthy, that can host prisons . At 2 h 56 am, it was the turn of Rudolf Hess to give his instructions .

For Thalmann and Feinermann, the sequence of orders, and especially the precision of the instructions given by Mller, including orders to stop from 20 000 to 30 000 Jews, confirm the existence of a predetermined plan, prior to assassination of vom Rath . This analysis is shared by Gerald Schwab, that the telex sent by Muller, in which there is no allusion to the death of vom Rath, had been prepared in advance until a suitable opportunity, Schwab also emphasized that the camps concentration were preparing for several months to cope with a sudden mass influx of inmates . The fallacy of the claim that violence had been spontaneous and is supported by a report from the Supreme Court of the party written early 1939: "oral instructions of the Minister of the Interior were apparently understood by all leaders present as meaning that the party should not appear on the outside, as the initiator of events, but he was, in fact, responsible for organizing and executing them . "

Commenting on the event and reflecting the difficulty of imposing version of a pogrom "spontaneous" one of Blockleiters Httenbach in Middle Franconia , where the Jewish temple was burned down by local officials of the Nazi Party and SA in writing a report to his superiors on 7 February 1939 : "we should not write that the fire was put at the synagogue by party members .

On 10 November 1938 , Goebbels, Hitler consulted by phone in the early hours of the morning and then met over lunch, while the violence continues. With the approval of the Fuehrer, Goebbels gave the order to stop the pogrom . This statement is issued by the Berlin press to 17 hours, by radio stations in 20 hours throughout the day after the press . It is followed by messages from Heydrich to police in the patrols "who had disappeared as if by magic, to resurface every street corner .

The pogrom: anti-Semitic violence throughout the Reich

"I'm going to go back to my hotel when I see the sky
The synagogue of Rudolf Herzog Strasse in Munich after the fire.

By the end of the speech of Goebbels, members of Adolf Hitler Stosstrupp rage in the streets of Munich and destroy the synagogue on Herzog-Rudolf-Strasse, their violence up to cause concern among Gauleiter Adolf Wagner . Goebbels also gave orders for them to demolish the synagogue Fasasenstrasse .

The pogrom spread quickly throughout the Reich , from big cities to small towns, "the gauleiters went into action around 22 h 30. The SA followed at 23 hours, the police shortly before midnight, the SS , 1 h 20 am .

At Innsbruck , in the Gau of Tyrol - Vorarlberg , where only a few hundred Jews, a squad of SS members, dressed in civilian murders several influential Jews . Diplomats reflect the rampages of violence made at Cologne and Leipzig , similar scenes occur in the small town of Wittlich, Moselle, where SA climbs onto the roof of the synagogue, waving Torah scrolls and s cried "Torch-ass with you, Jews! " . At Marburg , in Tuebingen , members of the Nazi Party and SA, often drunk after celebrating the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch , torching synagogues under the eyes of firefighters, whose action is limited to avoid Fire does spread to the neighboring buildings . In Esslingen , the " Brown Shirts "ransack an orphanage in the courtyard where they make a bonfire with books, religious objects and anything that is combustible, threatening the crying children thrown into the fire if they leave not immediately ; at Potsdam , is a boarding school that has been invaded and whose children are hunted at night . At Leipzig , the Jewish cemetery is vandalized: the place of worship and the keeper's house were burned, overturned tombstones and graves desecrated . In the small town of Treuchtlingen , violence peaked: members of the SA, encouraged by some people, set fire to the synagogue, breaking windows of Jewish shops and looting the contents ransacked the houses occupied by Jews , destroying furniture, tableware and sanitary and forcing women, refugees in the cellar, to destroy bottles of wine and canned . It was at Vienna , which had already produced anti-Jewish riots during the Anschluss , the pogrom that took its most violent and deadliest, with 42 synagogues burned, 27 people killed and Jewish 88 seriously injured .

Violence is always accompanied by the humiliation of victims. In Saarbrucken , the Jews are forced to dance, kneel and sing hymns in front of the synagogue, before spraying the fire hose, in Essen , they set fire to their beards; in Meppen , they forced to kiss the ground in front of the headquarters of the SA, while they are beaten to kick . In Frth , Jews were taken to the theater, "one parked in the darkened room, the other mounted on the brightly lit stage to be beaten . In Baden-Baden , Jews gathered in the synagogue where they should go in trampling a mantle of prayer : once inside the building, they are made to sing the Horst Wessel Lied , and then read a passage from Mein Kampf at the table of the officiating .

Jewish store ransacked in Munich

Besides the hundreds of synagogues and churches burned, thousands of shops, boutiques and Jewish apartments were destroyed, vandalized or looted, and almost all Jewish cemeteries are desecrated , women, children and old people are beaten and brutalized bestial; suicides are more numerous and 20,000 Jews were deported to concentration camps where they suffer unspeakable torture and sadism of the guards . An unknown number of rape and a hundred murders are also committed.

The abuses are not committed by members of the SA or SS, but also by "ordinary citizens" by "other sectors of the population, especially - but not only - young as five years of National Socialism in schools and the Hitler Youth were not left unscathed "in Dsseldorf , doctors at the hospital and several judges involved in the burning of the synagogue ; to Gauknigshoven in Lower Franconia , "peasants respected" profane the sanctuary of the Torah and plunder the homes of Jews in the morning of November 10, schoolchildren and adolescents overwhelm their sarcasm, their jeers and insults of their Jews rounded up by police and often hustled by howling packs they throw stones . If part of the population participates in the pogrom, but the Germans show their sympathy for the victims, and in some cases, their lavish material aid and comfort .

Conclusion: a community traumatized

A gate with the inscription in German " Arbeit Macht Frei "in French means" Work makes you free "at the Dachau concentration camp.

In a report dated 11 November 1938 , Reinhard Heydrich reported 36 deaths and many serious injuries for the entire Reich. For Saul Friedlander , "the report proved a much heavier; throughout Germany . On this last point, Raul Hilberg estimated that more than 25 000 men sent to Nazi concentration camps like Dachau (including approximately 10,911 in 4600 from Vienna ), Buchenwald (9845 people) and Sachsenhausen (at least 6000) .

"In total - and according to conservative estimates included in the documents of the Wiener Library - the pogrom took the lives of 2 000 to 2 500 men, women and children and left indelible scars from all those who lived the horror .

Reactions: from outrage to indifference

Overseas

Foreign Jews were victims of the pogrom, despite directives ordering them save: diplomatic protests flock and are passed without comment in the Reich Chancellery, where they are buried in the files .

The international press condemns events: more than a thousand editorials on this subject appear in the American press, particularly vehement, and President Roosevelt recalled the U.S. ambassador in attendance. If the general indignation, it does not translate into a widening of the policy of accepting Jewish s of the Reich in 1938, the United States do not reach their quota of Jewish immigrants from Germany and Austria, and pay 27 000 140 000 visas on demand . The reactions are also indignant in the Danish press and French and the Italian fascist government surprised "that the escalation of anti-Semitic persecution in Germany did not lead to the abandonment of the project . "It was clear that the riots had initially lost to Germany much of the sympathy it enjoyed in the world .

Suites to international protests, the companies controlled by foreign Jews to the Reich are provided, the 1December 1938 , delivery and atoning may continue their activities after December 31 . The boycott of German exports is becoming widespread, particularly in France, England, United States, Canada, Yugoslavia and the Netherlands .

In Germany

The pogrom immediately raises serious tensions among the major Nazi leaders. If any of these objects to measures or anti-Jewish violence, the consequences of Kristallnacht on the image of Germany abroad, and its possible negative economic impact and the fact that it has been triggered by Goebbels without consultation, involves a strong reaction from Heinrich Himmler , of Hermann Goering or Walther Funk .

With few individual exceptions, neither the Protestant and Catholic churches, or academia, or the generals , and "no good representative of Germany "make no protest following the pogrom . If, after the reports of the SD , the public largely rejects violence and damage caused by the pogrom is mainly due to the unnecessary destruction of property that adversely affects all the Germans and the State's announcement a fine of 1 billion marks inflicted on Jews calms the mind . The direction of the German Social Democratic Party in exile, SoPaDe, also observes that "the vast majority of German people has strongly condemned the violence", for various reasons as outlined in Ian Kershaw . If "the wave of popular indignation" against the Jews expect for Goebbels did not materialize , by Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, "faced with limited critical, there was the Germans' enthusiasm for the company eliminationist that Kristallnacht did not enter, and the immense satisfaction with which so many Germans had hosted the event . "

"From a global perspective, the regime .

Sequences and consequences: the radicalization of anti-Semitism

"I wish you to kill two hundred Jews rather than destroy these values. "

- Hermann Goering , Berlin , 12 November 1938

Hermann Goering , addressing the Reichstag

Kristallnacht is followed by a radicalization of the Nazi anti-Semitic measures. The aftermath of the pogrom are examined from the 12 November 1938 , at a high level meeting, chaired by Hermann Goering , at the express request and insistence of Hitler : among the hundreds of participants, we note the presence of Joseph Goebbels , the head of the RSHA Reinhard Heydrich , Ministers of Economics Walther Funk , Finance Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk and Justice Franz Gurtner , representatives of the Reichsbank and leaders of the Nazi party in Austria and in the Sudetenland . The first discussion focuses on compensation for damage, the only windows being destroyed insured for 6 million. After lengthy discussion, particularly between Goering, Reinhard Heydrich and the representative of German insurers, it was decided that the compensation paid by insurers to beneficiaries will be confiscated by the state and is imposed on German Jews a "fine repair "of a billion Reichsmark and force them to rehabilitate at their own expense, shops, offices and homes ransacked , .

At that same meeting, Gring decreed the cessation, from 1 January 1939 , all commercial activities conducted by Jews, who must sell their shops and businesses, securities, jewelry and works of art, which is a essential phase of the Aryanization of Jewish property. While Goebbels in turn evokes the ban, for Jews, access to public entertainments, forests or parks, the eviction of Jewish children from German schools, Heydrich argued vigorously for an acceleration of emigration, taking the model results in Vienna by Adolf Eichmann : To accelerate this migration, he advocates wearing a special badge by all the people considered Jewish under the Nuremberg Laws , Goering said, for his part , a supporter of the creation of ghettos . If these two measures are not successful, the pogrom has reached its goal and Jewish emigration accelerated: 80 000 Jews fleeing the Third Reich, "in the most traumatic circumstances," between late 1938 and the beginning of the war .

In the aftermath, anti-Semitic discrimination multiply and cure: the 15 November 1938 , all Jewish children still present in German schools are hunted; 19, Jews are deprived of social assistance; 28, the Minister of Inside inform the presidents of the Lnder they can exclude Jews from certain public spaces and the next day, he forbade Jews to own pigeons. During the months of December 1938 and January 1939, measures to exclude Jews from public life, professional and cultural life are increasingly numerous and increasingly hard .

If the Nazi authorities are picking on the victims of the pogrom, they are evidence of a special leniency to the perpetrators of the worst abuses. Fires, destruction and brutality are in accordance with instructions given by successive leaders of the SA, Heinrich Mller and Heydrich, but this is not the case of looting, murder and rape. The pogrom ended, the killers are rarely prosecuted or sentenced to particularly small , in a secret letter to the prosecutor in Hamburg , the Department of Justice said on 19 November that the killing of Jews and . For cons, the perpetrators of rape are expelled from the party and brought before civil courts, the domestic court of the Nazi party believed that crime, contrary to the Nuremberg laws that prohibit since 1935 "any sexual relationship between Jews and Gentiles "more serious than murder. In his report of 13 February 1939 addressed to Goebbels, the Obergruppenfuehrer Walter Buch, who is investigating the excesses committed during the Kristallnacht, is 16 facts, including 3 murders and 13 sexual and recommends that charges be dropped to Except for two cases of rape, the killers had acted on orders from their superiors or by thinking that their crimes were in accordance with the instructions .

Commemorations in Germany: from silence to celebration

Commemorative stamp for the 50th anniversary of Kristallnacht.

The commemoration of Kristallnacht remains confidential for many years. During the forties and fifties, the references in the press are rare: one of them is made in the Tagesspiel, daily West Berlin on 9 November 1945 , this newspaper will return on the event that 1948. In the East , the official newspaper Neues Deutschland, published on the subject in 1947 and 1948, then after several years of silence, in 1956 and in 1958 , the twentieth anniversary of the pogrom is not mentioned. Not until the fortieth anniversary of the event in 1978 , so it is remembered by the whole society .

The 70th anniversary of Kristallnacht, November 9, 2008 at the synagogue on Rykestrasse , is an opportunity for German Chancellor Angela Merkel launched an appeal for "the legacy of the past be a lesson for the future. Chancellor denounced the "indifference to racism and antisemitism." For her, this is a first step that may undermine essential values. "Too few Germans had at the time the courage to protest against Nazi barbarism (...). This lesson of the past is today for Europe, but also for other regions, particularly Arab countries " , .

An important commemoration was also held in Brussels on 9 and 10 November 2008 .

Kristallnacht or Reichspogromnacht? : Etymological argument

Jewish store ransacked in Magdeburg

If all the authors agree that the term "Kristallnacht" ("Kristallnacht") refers to fragments of glass bulky sidewalks in front of the windows of Jewish shops destroyed, and it appears to Berlin , the Consensus does not exceed this generality. For Kershaw, the term comes from "popular speech , for Karl A. Schleunes, this is a name invented by wits Berlin . According to Arno J. Mayer, the name was created by Nazi propaganda to focus public attention on the damage, obscuring the looting and physical violence . It is used by an official of the Nazi Gau of Hanover during a speech on 24 June 1939 , with connotations of "humorous" .

"Kristallnacht! It shines and sparkles like at a party. It is high time that this term, its offensive minimization, disappears at the very least historical works "

- Avraham Barkai, 1988 .

In a book published in 2001, the German political scientist Harald Schmid stresses the multiplicity of terms used to designate the anti-Semitic violence of 9 and 10 November 1938 and the controversial interpretation given to the word "Kristallnacht". Questioned at the 10th anniversary of the event, he was replaced in 1978 by the politically correct term for Reichspogromnacht, who won lasting from celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary in 1988 . The debate on terminology is mainly confined to Germany and Austria and can cause great astonishment in the Anglophone academic world . The diversity of vocabulary according to language areas is shown at the 70 th anniversary, while in Germany, Chancellor Angela Merkel only uses the term pogromnacht , in Brussels, the president of CCOJB uses the term Kristallnacht .

Notes

Bibliography

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See also

External Links

References

Notes

  1. "If the pogrom did not permit even to suspect what was going to be the reality of Auschwitz , to Belzec from Sobibor of Treblinka or Chelmno , he left to guess at what the workings of a murderous organization whose existence and operation would have been inconceivable before in Europe, "Kurt Ptzold," Night of Broken Glass ": officials, victims and the" silent majority ", in, Bdarida Francis (ed.), The Nazi policy of extermination, Albin Michel, Paris, 1989, p. 201.
  2. Grynszpan wanted to assassinate the ambassador but shot the diplomat whom he had been sent, Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945, p. 229
  3. Grynszpan will be held in either France or Germany, the 18 January 1941 , he was deported to Sachsenhausen where you lose track of him, Rita Thalmann, Emmanuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938, p. 67-87
  4. If Ian Kershaw, the first anti-Semitic abuses are conducted "without any directive from the top," according to Richard J. Evans they arise, at least in Hesse, specific instructions Goebbels
  5. 19 hours according to Ian Kershaw, 21 hours Friedlnder, between 19 and 20 hours to Schwab
  6. Day holiday since Hitler came to power, Gerad Schwab, The Day The Holocaust Began. The odiyssey of Grynszpan, P. 20
  7. For Richard J. Evans, if Hitler did not comment publicly, however, he gives the order to Goebbels to organize "a great national offensive against the Jews" and "staged intended to convince the party faithful gathered at the hotel City of Munich that the operation was the result of a hot reaction dictated by emotion and anger, Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939, p. 655
  8. See especially the map of synagogues destroyed during the night of November 9 to 10, 1938, in Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939, p. 662
  9. If they are ordered to participate in the pogrom, members of the SS must do so in civilian, Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945, p. 232
  10. Gen. Werner von Fritsch , yet forfeit his position as Chief of Staff of the Army by the Nazis, said that the pogrom is "the destiny of Germany, William L. Shirer, The Third Reich, p. 471-472
  11. According to Richard J. Evans, the total amount that was stolen from Jews in 1938 and 1939, after Kristallnacht and regardless of Aryanization, greatly exceeds two billion Reichsmark, Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939, p. 670
  12. A stage play, From crystal to smoke, Jacques Attali , directed by Daniel Mesguich , Theatre du Rond-Point Paris, played from 16-09-2008 to 28-09-2008, recalls this episode References
    1. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews , p. 66
    2. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936 , p. 360-362
    3. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1889-1936 , p. 672-673
    4. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews , p. 115-116
    5. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews , p. 121-128
    6. a , b and c Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 319-331
    7. a and b Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 337
    8. a , b and c Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews , p. 80
    9. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 655
    10. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 229
    11. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 229
    12. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 230
    13. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 654
    14. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 341
    15. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 229
    16. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 342
    17. Joseph Goebbels, pp. 1933-1939 , p. 647
    18. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 229
    19. Gerald Schwab, The Day The Holocaust Began. The odyssey of Grynszpan , p. 20
    20. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 656-657
    21. a and b Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 344
    22. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 657
    23. Rita Thalmann, Emannuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938 , p. 93-94
    24. Gerald Schwab, The Day The Holocaust Began. The odyssey of Grynszpan , p. 24-25
    25. Gerald Schwab, The Day The Holocaust Began. The odyssey of Grynszpan , p. 21
    26. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 350-351
    27. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 664
    28. Rita Thalmann, Emannuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938 , p. 131
    29. Rita Thalmann, Emannuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938 , p. 131-132
    30. Joseph Goebbels, pp. 1933-1939 , p. 648
    31. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 231
    32. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 232
    33. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 345-346
    34. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 348-349
    35. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 232-233
    36. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 658
    37. Rita Thalmann, Emannuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938 , p. 101
    38. Rita Thalmann, Emannuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938 , p. 105
    39. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 659
    40. Bukeye Evan Burr, Hitler's Austria, Popular Feeling In The Nazi Era, 1938-1945, The University of North Carolina Press, 2000 30-32
    41. Gerhard Botz, The persecution of Jews in Austria: from exclusion to extermination in a href = "% C3% Fran A7ois_B% C3% A9darida" alt = "Francois Bedarida"> Bdarida Francis (ed.), The Nazi policy of extermination, Albin Michel, Paris, 1989, p. 216-217
    42. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 664-665
    43. Rita Thalmann, Emannuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938 , p. 107
    44. Rita Thalmann, Emannuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938 , p. 113-114
    45. Gerald Schwab, The Day The Holocaust Began. The odyssey of Grynszpan , p. 26
    46. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 234-235
    47. William L. Shirer, The Third Reich , p. 467
    48. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 235
    49. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 660
    50. Rita Thalmann, Emannuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938 , p. 121-122
    51. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 236-237
    52. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 237
    53. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 347
    54. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews , p. 81
    55. Rita Thalmann, Emmanuel Feinermann, Crystal Night , p. 196
    56. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews , p. 85
    57. Hans-Jurgen Doscher, Reichskristallnacht. Die Novemberpogrome 1938, Econ Tb. 2000, p. 120
    58. (de) Kurt Ptzold, Irene Runge, Kristallnacht. Zum Pogrom 1938, Pahl-Rugenstein, Kln 1988, p.33
    59. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 374-375
    60. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 374
    61. a and b Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 376
    62. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews , p. 87
    63. (de) Genschel Helmut, Die Juden der Verdrngung aus der Wirtschaft im Dritten Reich, Gttinger Bausteine zur Geschichtswissenschaft Band 38, Musterschmidt-Verlag, Gttingen 1966, p. 191
    64. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews , p. 86
    65. Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of European Jews , p. 81-83
    66. William L. Shirer, The Third Reich , p. 471
    67. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 371-372
    68. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 369
    69. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 237-238
    70. Gerald Schwab, The Day The Holocaust Began. The odyssey of Grynszpan , p. 22
    71. Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners. Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust, Paris, Seuil, 1997 110
    72. Peter Longerich, "We do not know." The Germans and the Final Solution 1933-1945, Editions Heloise d'Ormesson, 2008, p. 173.
    73. Rita Thalmann, Emannuel Feinermann, The Kristallnacht. 9-10 November 1938 , p. 148
    74. Arno J. Mayer, The "final solution" in history, La Dcouverte, Paris, 1990 201
    75. Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich. 1933-1939 , p. 668
    76. Arno J. Mayer, The "final solution" in history, La Dcouverte, Paris, 1990 201
    77. Peter Longerich, "We do not know." The Germans and the Final Solution 1933-1945, Editions Heloise d'Ormesson, 2008, p. 174-175.
    78. Gerald Schwab, The Day The Holocaust Began. The odyssey of Grynszpan , p. 31
    79. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 352-355
    80. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 241
    81. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 357-364
    82. William L. Shirer, The Third Reich , p. 467
    83. Saul Friedlnder, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945, the years of persecution , p. 347
    84. William L. Shirer, The Third Reich , p. 467
    85. Gerald Schwab, The Day The Holocaust Began. The odyssey of Grynszpan , p. 27
    86. unless otherwise stated, this section is written based on Ludwig Eiber, Reichskristallnacht - Reichspogromnacht. Reflections on the Change of the Term, in Peter M. Daly, Building history. The Shoah in Art, Memory and Myth , p. 73-86
    87. a , b and c Harald Schmid Sprachstreit Novemberland Freitag im 46, Die Ost-West-Wochenzeitung, 8. November 2002
    88. Pascal Thibault, " 70 years ago, Kristallnacht ", Radio France International, November 9, 2008. Accessed November 11, 2008
    89. other news
    90. There Promoting Tolerance Throughout The European Continent
    91. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, 1936-1945 , p. 219
    92. Karl A. Schleunes, a tortuous route: Nazi policies toward Jews in Germany (1933-1939), in Nazi Germany and the Jewish genocide, Symposium of the Graduate School of Social Science, Gallimard-Le Seuil, Paris, 1985, p. 128
    93. Arno J. Mayer, The "final solution" in history, La Dcouverte, Paris, 1990, p 199-200
    94. quoted by Walter H. Pehle, Der Judenpogrom 1938: Von der "Reichskristallnacht" zum Vlkermord., Frankfurt am Main 1988, p. 113
    95. Harald Schmid Errinern an den Tag der Schuld. Novemberpogrom das von 1938 in der deutschen Geschiktpolitik, Hamburg, Ergene-Verlag, 2001
    96. see for example, Naomi Kramer, Kristallnacht - the Icon of the Shoah, in Peter M. Daly, Building history. The Shoah in Art, Memory and Myth , p. 67-71
    97. November 9, 2008 Speech by Chancellor Angela Merkel
    98. Joel Rubinfeld Speech
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