Kashrut

Etymology and terminology

The term kosher appears only once in the Hebrew Bible , and is rendered in French by "appropriate . Hence, the term kosher can be used in at least three cases.

In the first, the word has a meaning similar to the secular word "appropriate" in French. Thus, to underscore the value of Darius ^I , who attended the Judeans in the rebuilding of the Temple that the Talmud calls the "Kosher King . It is also that it has in many terms "figurative" current .

In a religious context non-food, the term "kosher" is conventionally used to mean "specific ritual "and its antonym is then "passoul "(disqualified). It applies to a glass of wine, a Torah scroll , a mezuzah , and any other object whose function is to allow the completion of the ritual.

Finally, the meaning most famous is the one related to food, meaning also the previous close. The meal was indeed Jewish function is to reproduce the ritual korbanot who stood in the Temple of Jerusalem , and kitchen utensils and containers, and foods must be "acceptable" to carry out this act of holiness. The Levitical , describing the ritual and the acceptable foods, food defines two categories: tahor (pure) and TAME (impure). The opposite of kosher is in this case either TAME (impure), meaning that a food can in no way serve the ritual of the meal (the pork , for example) or Taref (literally, "torn") is ie potentially acceptable for consumption but rendered unfit due to a misapplication of the ritual.

Principles of cacherouth

The laws of kashrut derive from various passages in the Torah. They are many and varied, and not all are universally observed. Some are only some common, others depend on the rite of origin. However, we can identify the main rules:

• For foods of animal origin:
  • they must have special signs and, in the case of mammals and birds, come from specific species;
  • they must be ritually slaughtered ; parties banned for consumption, including blood, sciatic nerve and the fat must be removed;
  • "Lamb can be cooked in milk of the mother;"
  • only milk lawful species can be eaten .
• For foods of plant origin:
  • they must be checked to ensure no parasites visible to the naked eye;
  • certain limits must be observed and, in the case of proceeds of the crop land of Israel , tithes must be removed.
• Additional laws apply when holy days specific, and only during those days.
• Some foods must be prepared largely or exclusively by the children of Israel.
• The non-kosher dishes transmit their impurity utensils used in their preparation, and can be used for kosher foods to which they would transmit to turn their impurity. Some items, depending on the materials they are made, can be purified by applying a flame to a temperature such as sparks fly from the object if rubbed (libboun), or by immersion in boiling water ( Hagala).
• No one Jew is supposed to ignore the laws of cacherouth for personal use. However, monitoring and supervision of the production chain of food for others, such as the sale or restoration should be entrusted to an expert cacherouth.

Animal species licit and illicit

The Bible divides animals into three kingdoms: those living on earth, those who steal and those who live in the water. The earthly kingdom is divided into wild animals, domestic and crawling.

The first mention of "clean animals and animals that are not pure" is in Parshat Noach. However, the distinction is described in Leviticus 11 and Deuteronomy 14.

For animals living on land, are pure animals with split hooves ruminating their food, including beef , the calf , the sheep , the lamb or goat and unclean animals whose hoof is not split like the camel, the donkey or horse, or do not ruminate their food like pork or rabbit .

For animals that fly, which includes bats , the Bible gives a list of forbidden birds, particularly raptors. The young doves and pigeons are pure, the only birds being admitted for an offering. The backyard poultry ( chicken , duck , goose , turkey , guinea fowl ) are all potentially pure. However, the purity of an animal must be certified before a tradition of these animals is consumed . In practice, the list of clean and unclean birds is derived from the glosses of Rashi . The Torah refers to certain types of grasshoppers as permitted for consumption. However, with the exception of communities with grasshopper is one of the main sources of food, their consumption is banned because of doubt about the identification of insect species permitted . It was banned in the community of Djerba in Tunisia in the eighteenth ^century by Rabbi Aron Perez decision .

For aquatic animals, pure those with fins and scales , which includes fish such as salmon , the cod , the herring , the sardine , the whiting , the bream , the bar , the sole , the tuna , the carp , etc.. The sturgeon , which loses its scales when the coupling is not kosher, neither the angler , the skate , the eel and all the seafood ( shrimp , lobster , lobster , oysters , mussels , etc.. ) . The fish are allowed in this together list of kosher fish.

Besides belonging to a pure species, each animal must, according to the Bible, be free of impurity individual, that is to say not suffer from any disability, including the crushing of the testicles in order be offered to God. However, and although it is forbidden for a Jew to castrate an animal, why we do not normally found in beef , of capon , etc.. in Israel , it is lawful to kill and eat the flesh of an animal previously castrated by Gentile .

Regulations relating to meat and poultry

Ritual Slaughter

The ritual slaughter (shehita) , in which the Torah refers implicitly but not explicitly The main purpose of draining the beast of his blood. Shehita the other is to decide between the jugular vein , the carotid artery , the esophagus and trachea in one continuous movement with a sharp knife showing no notch. The failure of one of these criteria makes the meat unfit.
The carcass must also be checked after slaughter to ensure that the animal was not suffering from a defect that would have led to his natural death during the year, and make his death by killing suspect and therefore unsuitable . One of the most disabling injuries by Beth Yosef is the presence of lung adhesions, while the Jewish Ashkenazi considered expendable if the animal remains tight after lung resection of the lesion, the Jewish Sephardic accept that animal whose lungs are smooth ( Yiddish glatt). The term glatt , however, is currently used to define more rigorous criteria for kashrut than usual, and does not apply only to the appearance of the lungs.

The parties banned for consumption, including blood, tallow and sciatic nerve , must then be removed.

The prohibition of the consumption of blood appears in the early biblical stories , evidence of ancient Hebrews whose crediting such use. Moreover, they recovered the blood of their victims , according to the belief that "the life of the flesh is in the blood . "The flesh of land animals and birds to eat is anemic , and any gift must be offered with salt , to continue this extraction.
This prohibition is so marked that the term Taref (torn ), denoting strictly an animal slaughtered improperly (this is the case not only culling was not carried by shehita but also from animals slaughtered according to rite, but with a knife having a default) or wounded by a hunter before being consumed, has come to serve as an antonym to Kosher . However, the correct term is tame (impure), only the clean animals could be consumed. Moreover, when a hunter captures a pure animal, alive, healthy and without injury, it can be used provided they are slaughtered according to ritual. However, the Talmud discourages hunting, particularly for leisure because it is cruel to animals .

The Torah prescribes, shortly after these rules, centralization of slaughter in the sanctuary (the tabernacle in the wilderness, the Temple of Jerusalem as they remain): any animal which one would eat the flesh should be approached from Cohens son of Aaron ), who will charge the parties banned for consumption, and the parties back to the right of Kohanim by statute. The showdown itself may however be made by a person who is not part of the tribe of priests. "The meat will be allowed for consumption during the day and evening of slaughter, after which his remains will be burned on the altar.

After the destruction of the Second Temple, the slaughter is given to individuals who specialize in the act, shohetim. The good performance of the rite is to be safe, supervised by a mashguiah which also checks the compliance of other "raw" before issuing a certificate of kashrut for the sale of food in commerce or in the restoration.

The nikkour (extraction of parts prohibited) and consequently on the taste of meat

Because of the ban on the consumption of prohibited parties whose groin tendon, that is to say, the sciatic nerve , it is necessary to practice nikkour (or treibering in Yiddish ), removal of the tendon inguinal tallow and surrounding large vessels. This operation, performed almost universally until the nineteenth ^century , being sensitive and not very profitable, meat with something "unpleasant" after this, the European rabbinical authorities , and the Chief Rabbi of New York, found it preferable to declare the rear parts of animals unfit for human consumption, and butchers them back in the chain of distribution of non-kosher meat. These parties, which extend to the eighth rib in cattle, and include rump, fillet, sirloin, flank steak, tab, steaks and ribs, are pieces of first class, the most tender of the animal . Parts incorrectly called "steak," which can be found on the stalls of some kosher butchers in France, are in fact lower ribs of the front portion of beef, so pieces of second category, much less tender. It is for this reason that the same name, beef kosher appears much less tender than others .

This rule is not based on any religious prohibition itself (which would be the case if the parts were inedible raised, that the parties are withdrawn or not), and the reason is purely financial . The nikkour is done nowadays in Israel , due to lack of demand for meat not served. However, Rabbi Moshe Feinstein who said that the omission of a requirement of the Torah is a serious offense, a seminar was held in the United States in 2007 to reintroduce the practice .

Accommodage: the cachrisation

A piece of meat or poultry , even ritually slaughtered, there is still blood, and must be removed before being cooked . This process must be done within three days of slaughter, otherwise the blood congeals. It involves three steps:

• when cheriyya ("washing"), the meat is dipped into a container filled with water and soaked over its entire surface for half an hour to soften it so that it can absorb the salt. The liquid is then drained by placing the meat on a plank grooved inclined.
• the meli'ha ("curing") is to add salt on all sides of meat with salt (preferably the " salt cachrisation ") and leave it on the board for an hour.
• when hada'ha ("flushing"), the meat is rinsed twice

This procedure is unnecessary if the meat is grilled over an open flame, in the case of organs rich in blood as the liver is also the only way to cachrisation . The presence of minute traces of blood after these processes is allowed.

Due to this methodical extraction of blood, it is forbidden to boil a chicken to pluck, because the blood coagulates. Similarly, it is forbidden to freeze a room before the cachriser, unless it is destined to be burned, because during freezing, the blood freezes.

Ban mixtures

"Thou shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk. "This order, briefly mentioned three times in the Bible , is one of the most followed by Jews, including those who do not strictly adhere to other rules.
If the Karaite exegetes strictly scripturalists of the Bible, just check that the milk does not come from the mother of the beast, and authorize other mixtures, provided that the animal be slaughtered in rituals, rabbinic sages see it a ban on mixing milk / meat, even if they are not cooked together, because the Torah, if it had wanted to limit these mixtures that kid would have said, not just izzim Gedi Gedi, the ban also been extended to poultry, fearing a pagan or a Jew ignorant, seeing a Jew educated eat poultry with cream, do come to think that it consumes a mix milk / meat , and has even forbidden to take advantage of these mixtures, the cooking for the non-Jewish .
Some also prohibit milk and fish, however it is not an article of law , but a habit not universally followed .

This ban was deducted a body of rules mixtures prohibited prohibiting cooking or eating meat products (meat and derivatives) with dairy products (milk and derivatives). Thus,

• Jews must wait at least the time between meals to consume milk after eating meat, a little less if a meat dish to be eaten after a meal milk, and only after washing their hands , so as not to mix the two products in the stomach.
• foods are classified into three categories:
  • milk (halavi)
  • Meat (bassari) extending to poultry but not fish,
  • neutral (pareve or Pareve), including eggs, fish, fruits and vegetables, etc.. as well as products become inert as a result of treatment required for their procurement, such as gelatin , extracted from animal bones (all of these animals must even be kosher gelatin that is).
• This classification applies not only commodities but also their derivatives: a potato fried in animal fat becomes "meat. "
  • According to the principle noten ta'am (canned taste), it is estimated that some dishes and containers that have contained dairy dishes can not be used for meat dishes and vice versa. The nature of these containers is sometimes debatable: if all agree on the "conservative" character of porcelain or clay, Ashkenazim consider glass as a preservative (which can not be cachris by Hagala), unlike Sephardic. Anyway, observant Jews use two cookware and two separate dishes do not make forbidden mixtures.
    In addition, because the principle ta'am kkkar (taste ). This principle of excluding himself knows the exceptions, some foods, such as chametz , which can not be canceled even though the proportion would be 1 in 1000.

Regulations relating to plants

The requirements and restrictions on foods of plant origin are less numerous than those on animal products. However, a vegetarian diet does not provide a full guarantee of kashrut. The food plants could indeed have been prepared with utensils or dishes served at improper, and non-kosher ingredients may be added. In addition, some purely vegetable products such as bread and wine are subject to rules of cacherouth.

Plants, especially leafy vegetables including lettuce , the cabbage , the parsley , etc.. must be inspected before use to ensure the absence of insects and other parasites are visible to the naked eye, that would make them unclean. Ingestion of these parasites is against between three and six biblical requirements , which exceeds in severity the consumption of pork. The appropriate inspection and cleaning varies depending on the plant and the rabbi responsible for the inspection .

For products of the land of Israel , various tithes prescribed by the Bible must be taken. In the absence of the Temple of Jerusalem , a modified version of the tithes, which teroumat hamaasser the Maasser rishon the Maasser Sheni and Maasser animals , as is inapplicable, is removed from the total proceeds of the harvest. The product of a crop is not taken called Tevel, and is prohibited for consumption. Extra precautions must be taken with sheviit , harvesting of the land of Israel in every seventh year, so as not to violate the laws of the Sabatti years.

The fruit of a tree planted or replanted can be eaten or used for three years, under the issur Orlah . Some also avoid eating cereal the first year of harvest ( Hadash ).

Many restaurants and producers of vegetarian acquire hekhsher , certifying that their products cacherouth has been certified by a rabbinical organization that plants suspected of infestation have been examined and that steps have been taken to ensure that all cooked food fills requirements bishoul Israel.

Regulations relating to holy days

In general, unless absolutely vital emergency, the dishes can be cooked the Sabbath , because it violates various forbidden including the right to fire. The rabbis allow various forms of hamin, having simmered dishes during the Sabbath, because the fire was lit before sunset on Friday evening sun. Similarly, some dishes, like stuffed carp , have been developed to not violate the ban to separate the wheat from the chaff, that is to say the fish's bones.

The period of Passover , beginning with Passover and during one week, is characterized by an additional restriction on leavened or fermented products, collectively called chametz . This must be methodically searched and burned and no Jew can not possess; lPessa'h kosher kitchen is preparing almost exclusively based on unleavened bread ( matzot ). More recently, products of alternative non-chametz have been on the market, for example using glucose extracted from potatoes.
Fermentation is considered one of the forms of impurity most absolute, the preparations for the festival must have a cachrisation containers and utensils commonly used and traditionally observant Jews have two services (meat and milk) Reserved these seven days (eight in Diaspora ) in addition to normal services .
If the ban does not touch the original five species of grain , many variations have appeared due to the dispersal of Jews throughout the world, in large divisions Jewish Sephardic , Ashkenazi and Mizrahi / A>, each building on the views of their makers is why Ashkenazi Jews abstain from the consumption of legumes ( kitniyot ) during the period of Passover, while others do not follow this minhag ; of Furthermore, each country had its own interpreter, and dietary restrictions during Easter week are not exactly the same among the Jews of Morocco, Algeria or Tunisia, and similarly, some subgroups Ashkenazi prohibit gebrochts (unleavened tempered), while others have made a specialty of Matze brei , requiring unleavened soak in hot water or milk ^{Foods that need to be prepared by Jews}

In order to distance themselves vis--vis the Gentiles, the sages were forbidden to use wine, bread and oil produced by the idolaters . According Tosafists , these laws were implemented even before the time of Shammai and Hillel.
According to Rashi , these laws were intended to prevent consumption of unsafe food inadvertently. Indeed, to give thanks to divine providence, it is that food is prepared in compliance and willingness to sanctify YHWH and not an idol, yet at times Talmudic libations of wine were a gesture common among idolaters . However, according to later commentators, the opinion of Rashi include food prepared by non-observant Jews .
The Tosafists feel about them that the purpose of the Elders was to avoid too intimate relationships, leading to mixed marital unions, non-desirable. This interpretation was adopted by Taz , and is the most frequently cited to justify these practices in the Middle Ages and thereafter.

The severity against non-observant Jews (more precisely moumarim, apostates or renegades) remains in force in the Shulchan Aruch but, given the magnitude of the assimilation of Jews occurred in the nineteenth ^century , some modern makers, mostly relatives of the current religious-Zionist , removed this clause , the non-observance of the laws no longer part of a "spirit of rebellion. "Others, however, are in favor of its retention .

Among the foods must be prepared in whole or in part by the children of Israel :

• the wine , which must be manufactured without any intervention of a Gentile in the production chain. The interaction can not even take place indirectly, eg by a hand holding a knife touching the bottle of wine, for a non-Jew. Some makers , and Jews who bow to their decisions, are pushing this principle to refuse to have non-Jewish guests, or non-observant Jews, for fear of making it unfit for consumption yet prepared a wine in the rules ^{, ,} . However, it is permitted to offer a wine pasteurized, which has the same status as a fortified wine (Yayin mevoushal) or other alcohols produced from other elements, such as vodka, whiskey, etc.. However, if a priori alcohols are kosher, some (in Poland in particular) prefer to manufacture their own vodka kosher, from beans carefully sorted to remove any small insects prisoners, to avoid doubt.
• some dishes
• According to some, and only in certain circumstances, the bread

The Samaritans are a special case because, although they are not recognized as members of the congregation of Israel, the Talmud authorizes the consumption of food, under supervision of a Jew .

Cheese, butter (some say) and many dairy products ( Hebrew : , Israel chalav , milk of

must also be supervised by a Jew, but only for reasons Kosher cited by Rashi , not social separation. The prohibition of cheese is due to double precaution of adding a kosher Jew to milk the rennet of animal origin (extracted from the stomach of ruminants) which is established to have come from kosher animals; of Today, kosher rennet is obtained by reconstituting the conditions under which micro-organisms obtained by transgenesis can synthesize an enzyme with properties similar, kind to the animal rennin .

Certification and label cacherouth

Manufactured products can be commercialized as they are certified kosher.
The United States , religious organizations have established labels (the symbol of the Orthodox Union , a U inside a circle, is the most common, but there are several dozen) to ensure control. All, however, are not equivalent reliability. In some states with large Jewish populations, kosher label became a trademark.
In France , the Consistory , the Jewish authority created by Napoleon ^I and recognized by the Ministry of Interior, publishes an annual list of controlled items and affixes its label, the KBDP (kosher .
In Israel , the word "kosher" is affixed to the products controlled by the rabbinical authorities recognized.

It is not enough to read the ingredient list, because many factors are not taken into account, the fat used to lubricate pans (which can be derived from fat ), food additives (the "natural flavors" are often derived from animals or impure substances) etc.. In addition, kosher may cease to be without this being indicated, for example by feeding tallow in the manufacturing process.

Therefore Jewish assemblies competent submit products for consumption in the current vocabulary principles called "precautionary principle" and "traceability" means any product that is not explicitly controlled during all phases of production is refused.
Conversely, producers of foods and food additives wishing to open up these markets to contact the Jewish authorities to have their products certified kosher: a committee visit their facilities to inspect production methods and contents, before issuing a certificate compliance with consumer laws. Constant supervision is often required to avoid further incidents related to changes in method or content.
Such changes are often coordinated with the rabbi or the oversight body to ensure that the new packaging hekhsher shall not establish or other indication of kashrut in the event of termination of compliance. However, as one can not exclude a pre-existing stock of labels change has passed, organizations within the Jewish community publish newspapers and periodicals to identify products that have become questionable from a certain date, and those become kosher although lacking hekhsher.

This insistence on practicing Jews to buy only certified products and the degree of demand for quality have given birth in North America, the urban legend of the Jewish tax , while the extra cost would be minimal and the hekhsher easily offset . In France, a "stumpage fee" or "rabbinic tax" collected by the religious authority that assigns the kosher certificate, was assessed in 2000 by the French Government to 8 francs a kilogram of beef sold and constitute about half the resources of the Central Consistory .

Cacherouth, vegetarianism and veganism

Kosher plant being neutral (pareve) as containing no meat or milk, vegetarians and vegans often believe, wrongly, kosher and pareve products as synonyms of plants. This equation has many exceptions:

• fish (not a food vegetarian), eggs, meat or dairy are neither, are pareve.
• many creams for coffee sold in the United States are stamped "milk" under Jewish law because they contain milk protein (usually sodium caseinate). They lack, however, the nutritional value of dairy products.
• conversely, the rabbis may grant pareve status to equipment normally used for milk products, after cachrisation thereof. However, traces of milk residue may be sufficient to cause reactions in people allergic to dairy derivatives, and the product is labeled "milk," although it is halachic pareve.
• kosher cheese can be made from kosher animal rennet, microbial rennet or. Only the latter fits the criteria vegetarians.
• similarly, the gelatin can, although animal be stamped pareve.

Certification for eateries

The hekhsherim for restaurants must take into account additional criteria:

• the restaurant can not operate during the Sabbath and holidays.
• milk and meat kitchens should be separated, and the dishes can not be mixed.
• one must check daily mashguia'h containers and cooking utensils.

Observance of cacherouth

For Jews

Respecting and maintaining kashrut made long been part of the daily life of Jews for over 1500 years, regardless of their place of residence. Bible and archeology suggest that some of its rules were observed long before the time of the alleged revelation at Sinai. Many dishes, considered as "typically Jewish" were a reflection of his influence. Besides the gefilte fish , having the advantage of not violating the Sabbath , Jews were fond of fish and poultry because they do not require the skill of a shohet for slaughter (poultry consumption also implies expertise a shoheit. However, it is true that shhita poultry is less complex than that of cattle which implies it, several audits (lungs etc. ..). This allowed a majority of Jewish knowledge, for the most part, basic rules of chhita to do themselves. But these days the majority of Jews do not know the chhita, poultry consumption necessarily implies the presence of a certified shohet.). A disagreement on a point of kashrut, consumption or not hamin (stew during the night cholent for Ashkenazi , cholent for Sephardim ) to Shabbat, was considered one of the most reliable signs to identify a adherent to Karaism because they refuted the Bible scripturalists rabbinic interpretation leave a fire lit during the Sabbath, and believed that only foods that require no fire, that is to say cold dishes were allowed.
In addition, certain precepts, including abstention from pork and forbidden mixtures, had a profound impact on the feeding behavior of the Jews, practicing or not, that it was in a distinctive sign: however remote communities such as Jews the historic community of Kaifeng were known as the Chinese Tiao (or "Diao") jin jiao (, about "sectarians who withdraw the tendon ).
Abstention from pork in particular was recognized as a major sign of " Judaizing , "and referred to over the centuries by various sources including the Satires of Juvenal, the annals of the Spanish Inquisition , or the dictionary of the French Academy. It is regarded at the time of the Hasmonean revolt as a prima facie case of yehareg yaavor bike (rather die as result) , yet the rabbis did not inclurent in this modality , holding instead that observance of kashrut can not take precedence over the preservation of life .

In the ^seventeenth century , Sabbatai Zevi , one of the more famous contenders in the Messianic Jews, wanted to abolish some of these rules, such as consumption of fat. His measures, however, knew only a limited impact to the circle of his supporters .

More significant was the challenge to the unconditional observance of kashrut, as well as many principles and practices in Western Europe during the reform of Judaism. However, if the first decision reformed, including Abraham Geiger , wanted its abolition, seeing an archaism inhibiting the integration of Jews into mainstream society, some current Reformed movements, as Reconstructionist Judaism , encourage them to continue at least some rules, though they impose no.

The conservative movement, whose vision is intended centrist between Orthodox and Reformed, promulgates the observance of kashrut, but with certain adjustments, including:

• permission from the cachrisation utensils and containers without Hagala is to say with non-boiling water in certain circumstances. Conservative rabbis therefore allow the dishwasher for this purpose, although meat and dairy dishes can be washed simultaneously and that the dishwasher can not absorb food particles .
• permission of rennet for cheese from ruminants or bone gelatin horse (not a clean animal) because it has been sufficiently modified during manufacture to make the material original inert .

Currently, cacherouth is strictly observed by Orthodox Jews and Haredim, estimated at 30% of the total Jewish population .
More numerous are the Jews, Reform and Reconstructionist including that do not meet the full requirements of the cacherouth but maintain a certain subset of the laws, usually those of the forbidden pork and blends, regardless of the presence of a hekhsher on packaging or in restaurants. United States, many restaurants and deli cook dishes traditionally eaten by Jews, and therefore meets certain criteria cacherouth, whose predatory animals unclean and forbidden mixtures, but they work without rabbinical supervision, and are not kosher though they call themselves kosher style .

Conversely, if compliance, complete or relative of kashrut was a national cement, blatant transgression of these observances, as this strain was probably the case Xuetes , as was assumed in particular where many assimilated Jews ^, , even proudly affirmed, as was the case of kibbutzniks beginnings of Israel , is one of the most glaring symbols of the failure vis--vis the Jewish tradition, also chosen by the author of Pork and Milk , a documentary made in 2006 on returning to the layman.

Changing practices among Christians

Because of their Jewish origin, the early Christians from the outset faced the question of cacherouth.

Paul of Tarsus seems to have been an early supporter of abandoning the cacherouth, too Jewish practice, to promote the expansion of the new religion among the heathen , which have been endorsed by Pierre and Jacques at the Council of Jerusalem "Some men came down from Judaea taught the brethren, saying: If you are circumcised according to the custom of Moses, you can not be saved. Paul and Barnabas had a discussion with them and a lively discussion. . These prohibitions are a reminder of the Noahide laws : "You shall not eat flesh with its soul, with his blood" . The ban is strangled in the same direction as the prohibition of blood: an animal choked (not slaughtered) is filled with his blood, and consumption of blood is an important Levitical prohibited.

In fact, the mainstream of Christianity considered quickly they represented a "new covenant", which made it unnecessary and exceeded the requirements of the old covenant, signed with the people of Israel. Conversion to Judaism, and therefore compliance with the prohibited Levitical and their rabbinical interpretations (which are under strict kashrut) were considered unnecessary. Even the "compromise" established by the Acts of the Apostles (the prohibition of blood) fell into disuse.

Conversely, some streams have long remained very attached to the practice of kashrut, like the Judeo-Nazarenes or Ebionites , now extinct, and who had their own version, refusing meat consumption .

With the Protestant Reformation in the ^sixteenth century , strict observance of the biblical text has again been highlighted. The Protestants have for example helped version of the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh ), to the detriment of the vulgate of Catholics. Overall, however, Protestants are loyal to the vision of the "new covenant" spent making dietary prescriptions of Leviticus and Acts of the Apostles , but very few minority currents have however decided to return. If kashrut itself (requirement of more Levitical rabbinical rules) is not practiced among Christians, the Levitical rules, or at least inspired by them, were once again practiced by some.

In XXI ^century , the Christian faiths in at least some of the Levitical rules are divided into streams back to the early days of the church, and who have never abandoned, and some currents of Protestantism from which there are again faithful.

Found in the first group of Ethiopian Orthodox Church. It prohibits the consumption of pork, and encourages circumcision.

In the second group are the Protestant movement wanted to respect the letter of the Torah. They do however retain the implementing rules of kashrut, such as mixtures of abstention, saying it is later rabbinic innovations are not mandated by the Levitical . The Seventh Day Adventist Church , meanwhile, condemns the consumption of pork and even advise on vegetarianism , but without imposing . The Jehovah's Witnesses return to the prohibition of blood, applying not only energy consumption but also to blood transfusions.

Some groups Judeo-Christian respect the entire cacherouth. These subsets (but not necessarily all) says of Messianic Judaism , a pattern of currents predominantly North American who intend to define themselves as both fully Jewish and fully Christians, Jesus is here seen as the Messiah announced by Judaism , and any reference to the theology of the "new covenant" is clearly excluded.

Practices in other religions accepting the Torah

The Muslims observe a code of feeding and slaughter like the kashrut. The halal and Dhabihi are the exact counterparts of kashrut and shehita.

The Rastafarians have adopted a code of food inspired the Torah, the Ital prohibited and possessing some common kashrut, including the consumption of blood. However, the similarities are few, and advocates further Ital vegetarianism or even veganism . Similar rules are found among African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem , a religious African-American.

Kashrut and Society

Slaughter and respect for animals

According to the Talmud, cacherouth represents progress in this area, by prohibiting the use of a member of an animal alive (ever ha'ha min), frequent among the surrounding peoples . Practiced under the principle of tsa'ar Ba'alei Chaim (compassion to animals) , the shehita intended to cause the least possible suffering; properly implemented, it instantly removes the cerebral blood flow of beast, preventing them from suffering in principle .
However, it can be seen as a cruel practice, contrary to ethical standards, because of his refusal to perform stunning pre-mortem (formerly performed by a sledgehammer blow to the head, and now with a bullet in the head) because the animal would Taref made by these methods, and this has been the subject of legal battles and campaigns. Banned in some European countries it is allowed in others in the name of religious tolerance.

Some campaigns calling for the abolition of all ritual slaughter , other methods of making more "human. "They never fail to provoke reactions from local Jewish communities, who are sometimes anti-Semitic orientation. This anti-Semitism has been highlighted in some but not all cases, and groups known for their anti-Semitism have supported some of his campaigns.

The National Institute of Agronomic Research ( INRA ) has published a report in 2009 to try to identify and reduce pain in animals. He cites the case of ritual slaughter, during which the animal is not stunned during bleeding. He writes: "Some regulations and recommendations exist to prevent or limit the painful practice, but we sometimes see their non-compliance during the implementation. In addition, there is a legal vacuum concerning slaughtering outside slaughterhouses by the farmers themselves (euthanasia) among others in swine " .

Kashrut in Europe

For its meat or hide, the animal must be slaughtered without stunning. However, this stunning is compulsory in the European Union to reduce animal suffering. Kosher meat is a priori prohibited by European legislation. However, for the sake of tolerance vis--vis religious groups, some countries have established a system of nominations for what they call the ritual slaughter: Directive 93/119/EC and Decision 88/306 of European Community In practice, the situation differs between countries and changes over time. Norway (since 1930), Sweden (since 1938), Iceland, Switzerland (since 1893), Greece, Luxembourg and six Austrian provinces do not allow derogation. Kosher meat is prohibited, however, it is often allowed to import. The case of Switzerland is even more complicated because the import is allowed only for the Jewish community (the meat comes exclusively from Besancon in France next and Belgium, the animal protection organizations as OABA trying to raise awareness but without success so far. Spain, Ireland, Italy, there is a waiver without public debate.

If a total ban on kosher meat in Europe is not news, it could instead occur in the medium term, a sharp increase in prices slowing consumption. Indeed, following the outbreak of epidemics on the European cattle in recent years, consumer groups are demanding more and more traceability on all meats. They insist, and, in particular, the fact of seeing in words on the label by which the ritual animal was killed . However, at present, given the religious prohibition of beef consumption back (see above), half the kosher meat is considered unfit for human consumption and the Jewish community is resold, anonymously, in the classical path.

In a report prepared by the COPERCI (Standing Committee for Coordination of Inspection: General Inspection Authority, Inspectorate General of Agriculture, Veterinary General Council) delivered in September 2005 Distinguished Ministers of Interior and Agriculture It is clear that a part "significant ritually slaughtered meat is sold in the conventional circuit, without comment." These parts are the softest and most expensive beef, their cost is dominant in the cost of kosher meat. If, once these consumers informed, a vast majority of consumers were avoiding the meat. Indeed, according to a survey FIFG December 2009, 72% of French people are opposed to the exception allowing the slaughter of animals without being stunned. 24% of French people are willing to consume meat from animals slaughtered without stunning ^{, , ,} The rear part of the beef would become difficult to sell and the price of the game before that kosher increase is mechanically ^, . That is why the Israelites slaughter forcefully refuse the establishment of such a traceability system. ^, . The report of COPERCI was never made public. The subject remains sensitive. Meat producers as manufacturers are concerned "that customers will turn away from a ritually slaughtered meat, you recognize the National Federation of Industry and Trade Wholesale Meat (FNICGV)

The impact of the proposed European Directive labeling

The project Dialrel ("Dialogue on religious slaughter) of the European Commission concluded that the absence of stunning pre-mortem increases animal suffering. Kosher meats are not compliant with EU regulations. Before finding the solution for compliance with these regulations, 16 June 2010, Parliament passed an amendment in the proposed labeling regulations. The meat from ritually slaughtered animals will be specially labeled in a negative character . Slaughter without stunning (as required by Muslim and Jewish religious traditions) must be reported (Amendment No. 205 adopted by an overwhelming majority). Following this preliminary vote on first reading, it appears that too many differences still exist with the Council hoped to reach an agreement in the near future. Members therefore expect to have to re-legislate on second reading the draft regulations. . This labeling will mean that the meat will be outside in the normal distribution patterns. In the short term, we can predict that believers will no longer buy meat from ritually slaughtered animals in Europe.

The United States cacherouth

Rate of respect cacherouth by the American Jewish community

Orthodox Judaism, 22% of 4.3 million American Jews, and Conservative Judaism, 33% insist that the Jews follow the laws of cacherouth because it is for them a religious obligation. Reform Judaism, 38%, and Reconstructionist Judaism, 2%, believe that its laws no longer apply. Historiquement, le judasme rform, le mouvement le plus important avec 1,1 million de membres, s'est activement oppos la cacheroute comme archasme empchant l'intgration des juifs dans la socit gnrale. Plus rcemment, quelques parties des rforms ont commenc explorer l'option d'une approche plus traditionnelle. Cette faction, appel tradition-penchement est d'accord avec les rforms qui pensent que les rgles de la cacheroute ne sont pas obligatoires, mais croit que les juifs devraient envisager de les maintenir parce que c'est une bonne manire pour renforcer la saintet de leur vie. Ainsi, des juifs sont encourags envisager d'adopter une partie ou toutes les rgles de la cacheroute titre volontaire. Le mouvement des Reconstructionistes prconise que ses membres acceptent certaines des rgles de la cacherouth, mais de le faire sur un mode non contraignant ; leur position sur la cacherouth est identique l'aile tradition-penchement de la rforme. Beaucoup de juifs qui ne rpondent pas aux exigences compltes de la cacherouth nanmoins maintiennent un certain sous-ensemble des lois ; par exemple, vitent le cheval, le lapin, les insectes, le porc, les mollusques et cru Stace. Many Jews also avoid the consumption of milk with a meat dish based on this passage from the Bible: "Thou shalt not cook a kid in its mother's milk" Chemother Exodus XXIII, 19. Similarly, many keep a degree of cacherouth at home while having no problem in a restaurant to eat non-kosher, or will not follow the rules of kosher eating out as they follow at home.

Kashrut and animal rights

Ritual slaughter is not currently subject to limitations in the U.S. compared with Europe. However, animal rights groups regularly carry out a fight against this slaughter. See article detailed Ritual Slaughter: legal aspects

The cacherouth in Israel

Cacherouth and working conditions

Fight against abuse of the term

The cacherouth was, until the reform of Judaism occurred in the nineteenth ^century , universally observed among Jews at the point of being confused with their culinary traditions. However, cooking "to the Jewish" is insufficient to declare a dish or food is kosher: the "kosher pickles" of New York shops are rarely in accordance with the laws of kashrut, which may for example have been prepared with utensils unfit for use, their name means simply that the garlic was generously added to the brine in which they bathed .

Attempts to explain the cacherouth

The Torah does little to explain his dietary laws. As such, authors, religious or secular, have made numerous attempts to explain, no never met a consensus around it, for lack of evidence ignored.

A religious tradition unexplained

The dietary laws are predominant in the Torah, in its early requirements , but if the Torah decreed, it has virtually no justification for its numerous orders, except the vital nature of the blood , the Remember Jacob wrestling with the angel and holiness .

Prophetic literature does not provide more, although it severely judge those who do not follow .

Literature tannaitic based on his character for unexplained finding the divine inspiration of the Torah, written and oral as well , and Jewish philosophers classify legislation on kashrut among houqim, requirements for which knows no rational explanation , and for which some, such as Abraham ibn Ezra , consider futile any search for a specific reason .

Jews observing the cacherouth believe it must be followed because of its biblical character, regardless of the explanation . However, many scholars, Moses Maimonides in mind, consider lawful attempt to explore and try to understand . Several explanations have been proposed, sometimes by a single thinker, but no consensus has been until now.

A symbolic ritual

The Jewish-Alexandrian school, which Philo of Alexandria is one of the representatives, to draft the first centuries of the Common Era a meeting between Judaism and philosophy. The latter, partially apologetic purpose, presents Judaism as a form of philosophy before the letter, and cacherouth as a set of symbolic laws. This approach, also appear in the writings of the early Fathers of the Church , met with little success. The symbolic approach was also chosen by one of the founders of modern Orthodox Judaism , the rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch in Horeb.

Kosher animals represent virtue , while others embody the vice . The prohibition of mixing meat and milk represents a symbolic separation between death and life, respectively. The appearance of leniency of this requirement can also be seen as symbolic, because neither the mother nor the young animal would understand the cruelty of the act and have not developed additional suffering. Similarly, the prohibition of carnivorous animals, sick or dead animals could partly be explained by their perceived symbolic .

A practical hygiene

To explain the cacherouth in Jewish tradition, "the voice did not miss that attributed to the prohibition on health grounds, without wishing to be considered as the only valid . "These voices are often the ones holding the wise medicine , beginning with Moses Maimonides , whose example is more or less followed by Nahmanides and Gersonides . For example, Maimonides states that "the blood and the dead beast . "Also for this reason that prohibit certain mixtures of milk and fish , and it is also that foreknowledge of the biblical fables are used to justify the unexplained aspects of the Mosaic law and his rabbinic elaborations based on the discoveries of modern science. For example,

• the proscription of pork greatly reduces the incidence of trichinosis
• the proscription of predators and scavengers preserves corpses borne diseases .
• Seafood die quickly after being caught and released quickly various substances, including the histamine and are responsible for the consumer poisonings and allergic disorders .
• in 1953 , the Dr. David I. Macht , a pharmacologist, a biblical scholar and researcher at the Johns Hopkins University , conducted a comparative study on the concentrations of toxins clean and unclean animals, and concludes with a 100% correlation with the classification set out in Leviticus . He also indicated the deleterious effects of milk-meat mixtures, including the emergence of lactose intolerance and lowering the level of toxins in meat ritually slaughtered . His findings were subsequently discussed by biologists at the request of the Seventh Day Adventist Church .

However, the idea was not universally accepted, and these aspects are considered an unintended consequence and not the cause of cacherouth . This hypothesis is insufficient to explain other aspects of kashrut, which Orlah. Moreover, it contains no list of permitted and prohibited plants, while many plants, including the Middle East, are poisonous or harmful to humans. Similarly, Isaac Abravanel contends that many unhealthy dishes are not proscribed by the Torah, and there is no evidence that non-Jews are doing worse than the Jews .

A measure of moral sanctification

According to Maimonides , the true purpose of kashrut is the elevation of the individual through the mastery of his instincts and desires ^, . The shehita , ritual slaughter of animals carefully selected, replaces the hunt, the first natural expedient against hunger, juxtaposed with a thirst for blood and resulting in indiscriminate feeding. The prohibition of eating fruit from a tree in the first three years following its planting can enjoy over a long period the benefits and enjoyment provided with respect rather than as fast and reckless consumption entailed by their immediate. Tithing, aside from its social justice aims, as recalled the Torah to remember that material wealth is not the result of only effort but also of divine providence, that it is fair to make his due.

The Rav Kook explains also prohibits the firing of the kid in its mother's milk as an act of kindness towards animals, by not cooking the victim of a murder, even a saint, in the fruit theft .

According to the doctrine Hasidic -inspired Kabbalistic , the sanctification of the act of eating (in the making with a proper intention - to better fortify themselves follow the laws of the Torah) is required to release the "sparks of holiness," included All articles . These "sparks" are actually lines of communication with the divine, and their "activation" can bring the Divine Presence in the physical world . However, the sparks can be released from the material of all animals , which is why the "signs" were given in the Torah to be identified .
Cloven hooves symbolize an incomplete anchoring in the material world, and thus an easier way to spiritual rumination of food (food symbolizes the Torah, and holiness in general), that is to say the double chewing symbolizes the ability to penetrate more deeply into concepts or saints in holiness, which agrees well with the need to separate the sparks of their material.
These signs are signs, however, and does not render the animal kosher by their presence: a camel was born with cloven hooves totally not become pure so far.

A measure of sanctification ethnic

The concept of sanctification, in its etymological sense of "distinction" or "separation," has also been the subject of academic investigation.

The cultural anthropologist Mary Douglas wrote in her Purity and Danger how the Israelites could have used the idea of the distinction (in this dietary laws) as a way to create holiness .

Gordon Wenham , a Christian theologian, believes that laws reminded Israel what sort of behavior was expected of her, she chose to be holy in an unclean world , that is to say, and not separate under any pretext to meddle with the impurity: As rabbinical decrees, requirements Bible had the effect of reducing cultural assimilation and intermarriage with the surrounding peoples, reinforcing a sense of Jewish identity clean.
The circumcision was also their relatively clean (but other peoples practiced, like the Egyptians), and most importantly, it was about the private, while the dietary laws were a practice publicly visible. Their compliance was therefore a sign of distinction, and contributed to strengthening the commitment of the Israelites and Jews to their specificity . "

This was also the conclusion reached (with caution) Israel Finkelstein , an archaeologist , and Neil Asher Silberman , historian , interpreting the results of archaeological excavations in the Land of Israel. In a layer dated between XI and XII centuries BCE, were found in the highlands east of Canaan (that is to say in the current Judeo-Samaria ), what the authors of The Bible Unearthed think is the first settlements Israelites in the region. These hamlets are distinguished from surrounding villages by the absence of bone pork.

"While the early Israelites did not eat pork, the Philistines, however, consumed, there is even Ammonites and Moabites established east of the Jordan , if you believe the rudimentary data we have. The absence of pork consumption is explained not only by economic or environmental reasons. It is in fact the only clue that we have a precise identity, shared by all villagers . "

A backup socio-economic

Marvin Harris , an anthropologist, suggested economic reasons to kashrut, and the ban on pork in particular. Indeed, in an arid country like the land of Israel, where pigs can forage in forests do not exist, it can be fed with grain, which also need men. In years of scarcity, a conflict would be high among pig farmers and the hungry. Furthermore, pork is too rich in fat to be retained by salting ^References

Leave a Reply

Name (required)

Mail (will not be published) (required)

Website