Justinian
| Justinian I | |
|---|---|
| Byzantine Emperor | |
 Justinian mosaic of the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna , before 547 | |
| Reign | |
| 1August 527 - 14 November 565 &&&&&&&&&& 013 985 38 years, 3 months and 13 days | |
| Period | Justinian |
| Predecessor (s) | Justin I |
| Successor (s) | Justin II |
| Biography | |
| Birth | 11 May 483 - Tauresius (Iustin Prima) near the present Skopje , Macedonia |
| Original Name | Flavius Petrus Iustinianus Sabbatius |
| Deaths | 14 November 565 (82) Constantinople |
| Father | Sabbatius |
| Mother | Vigilantia |
| Spouse (s) | Theodora |
Justinian I (born on 11 May 483 in Illyria - died on November 13 565 ) or Justinian the Great, Emperor Byzantine from 527 until his death in 565. He is one of the most important leaders of the Late Antiquity. Whether in terms of the statutory scheme, expanding the borders of the Empire or of religious policy, it leaves a considerable work and vision.
Justinian's reign was marked by ambitious but only partial return of the Renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the empire." His legacy has even more resonance in the aspect of uniformity of Roman law, the Corpus iuris civilis , which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states.
His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture, and its construction program has given us such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia , which was to be the center of Orthodox Christianity for many centuries East.
Strongly criticized by Procopius of Caesarea for his policy, whose works represent the largest sources of the time of Justinian. We find additional sources from the following authors: John Malalas , Agathias and Menander Protector.
It is considered holy by the Orthodox Church and celebrated on August 2 or November 14 or November 15 with his wife Theodora The Eastern Roman Empire During the reign of Justinian, the Eastern Roman Empire is experiencing a revival of political power and material wealth that we would not have thought the old Empire after the invasions capable fifth century and the loss of its western part. Having said that the reign of Justinian, nearly 40 years, does not mark, contrary to what is often argued, the beginning of a new era but represents the latest attempt by the old Roman Empire to rebuild imperial unity, both the military reconquest by the codification of law and impose the will of the sovereign power of the Church. The undeniable success of the kingdom will, especially in the military and territorial be no tomorrows because disproportionate to the structures and resources of the Empire. It is only a profound social and political transformations, which are the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Heraclius , that it finds ways to overcome the many enemies and dangers it faces. Justinian undertook the successful reconquest of North Africa , of Italy and part of Spain , while ensuring the integrity of the territory on the other fronts. Under his reign, the Eastern Roman Empire emerged as the strongest power in the Mediterranean world, one of the greatest of his time with the empires of Persia and China. He developed a civilization renewed some of whose works still dazzle. With Hagia Sophia in Constantinople , he dons one of the most remarkable monuments of art history, ten centuries later, the Ottoman architects, who have taken to model, manage to match the perfomances techniques, but without exceeding them: its dome remains the highest of Istanbul. Justinian bequeathed to posterity as the greatest legal work of antiquity : the Justinian Code , which incorporates, in a form in a reasoned and logical order, much of the legal work of Rome , the laws and ordinances of the Emperors also although production of the great jurists. Introduced in the West in the eleventh centuryI, he profoundly influenced, and for a long, legal and political conceptions of the monarchies of the late Middle Ages and Modern Times. By the brilliance and scope of the achievements of his reign, Justinian is considered the equal of Pericles , Augustus , the Medici and Louis XIV , who was worthy to give their names in their time. Neither he nor his reign occupy yet in production historiographical speaking, the place it deserves. Aside from the "What-do I know? "P. Maraval, no work has been devoted since the book's monumental Charles Diehl dating back to 1901. The second volume of History of the Byzantine Empire by Ernest Stein is devoted almost entirely, but it is 1949. Since then, the reign of Justinian was briefly mentioned in general histories of the Middle Ages and is mentioned also in the works devoted to the Mediterranean or the Byzantine Empire between the IV - VII century, but the VI century is rarely treated in its individuality. Justinian (Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus) was born in Illyria on 11 May 483 to Tauresium (Justiniana Prima), (near present Leskovac ), in a modest family of Romanized Illyrians. His luck is to be the nephew of a soldier in a brilliant career that allows access to the imperial throne in 518 , under the name of Justin I. , successor to the Emperor Anastasius I.. Justin adopted him and his nephew is given, then he himself is no great culture, the best possible education, education of the time based on law , the rhetoric and theology. Became emperor Justinian Justin quickly to business associates and named Patrick , then consul. It is extremely rare in the Byzantine political history to see a man born as far from the throne at this point prepared to rule. When he came to power in 527 , at the age of forty-five, he is a grown man's personality contrasts. Indeed, Justinian has undeniable qualities: a strong sense of the state and the imperial idea, a high capacity for work, a relative simplicity of manners rare for its time: he's a vegetarian and do not drink wine, and has a great culture. His intellectual qualities are sometimes marred however by a suspicious character, impressionable, an authoritarian who suddenly changes into timidity, as during the Nika sedition and, especially after the death of the Empress Theodora in 548 , a lack of perseverance in the action. He also knows, and is one of its primary qualities, to surround himself with outstanding people, though often unscrupulous, like Belisarius , Narses , Tribonian , or the praetorian prefect John of Cappadocia. Justinian not hesitate to favor men in whom he trusts. The sample Narses, eunuch modest extraction, became one of the greatest military leaders of his time, is the best illustration. Finally, even if we should not exaggerate its influence, the role of Theodora , a former actress of humble origin (so much so that Justin I. did change the law prohibiting a Senator from marrying an actress allow the marriage of his nephew), wife of Justinian for about 523 , is undeniable. Justinian was the emperor who will try to rebuild the Roman Empire. Although no radical reform has been reached, the army of the Eastern Empire at the beginning of the reign of Justinian, nothing like that at the time of Diocletian and Constantine. His organization, composition, methods of combat are entirely new. Overall, more numerous, it consists of a greater number of professional soldiers and awards in the fighting, a prominent place in the cavalry. But, as in the past, the army weighs extremely heavy on the imperial budget: 75% of expenditure of the Empire are devoted to him. At the beginning of the reign of Justinian, the Eastern Army consists of three distinct groups: the bodyguard, the field army and border troops. All the soldiers were recruited by voluntary except limitanei (border troops), who succeeded by hereditary right. The profession of arms was not always considered attractive and the proportion of troops relative to the population represented 1% of it. The army was a means of upward mobility even more sure that no obstacle was opposed to the promotion of enlisted men to officer ranks. The best example of an ascent due entirely to the military is given by Justin I , who recruited a simple peasant as a simple soldier to the highest military ranks before ascending the throne. From the beginning of his reign, Justinian makes major reforms and it appears that leads to their success changes initiated earlier. Pursuing other hand, a process begun under Anastasius. Staff developments mark the beginning of the reign of Justinian, but which we can not assign a specific date because it was undoubtedly progressive, is a consistent increase in the number of the army between 527 and 540 and their decline thereafter. The only figure we have for the reign of Justinian is given by Agathias. He said the numbers of soldiers available to the Empire in 559 was only 150 000 men, many of which concerns only the military campaign and does not include limitanei or sailors. Agathias does not merely seen a decline in the long term spread. It also contrasts the beginning of the reign of Justinian, at the time he undertook conquests in the full vigor of his youth than his old age marked by its neglect of the army and its preference for diplomatic maneuvers. Whatever the numbers, after the changes and modifications made since the fourth century, the Army acquires, under Justinian, worth fighting and efficiency that allowed him to successfully confront the armies far superior in number. This is due to two types of changes: the cavalry, on the one hand and on the other hand, the modes of combat and weapons that are so important that the outcome of battles, now depends mainly on its action. The war, in the sixth century, is the exclusive business of professional soldiers. They are subjected constantly to intensive training. They are combat-trained individuals as well as developments require collective order and discipline. They have, after all, expensive equipment. In a famous passage of "history wars" Procopius of Caesarea strongly supports, contrary to custom that would extol the superiority of the methods of the past, the fighters of his time are much more formidable than those of yesteryear. Apparently, the armies of Justinian are fewer than those available to Diocletian and Constantine. Under his reign, no army operation does not exceed 30,000 men. Belisarius attacked the Vandal Africa with 15,000 men, the Ostrogothic Italy with 7,000 men and the maximum number of staff involved in Italy in 554 , does not exceed 18 000 men. On the eastern front, Belisarius control 25 000 men in 530 but he must finish the season with 20 000. There are 30 000 543. Against the Bulgarians in 548 , it has only 15,000 men. Armed with these numbers to seemingly trivial, the generals of Justinian are nonetheless able to win brilliant victories and conquer kingdoms organized and powerful. Justinian never appeared himself on the battlefield. His predecessor had bequeathed him a state whose central government and its branches in the provinces were strong enough for him to consolidate his authority dispenst ensuring personal command of armies and winning victories that were the confirmation of its legitimacy and protection of God. But he was always suspicious and not resigned himself than in grave circumstances to entrust the command of an expeditionary force to a commander in chief and in most cases, the split between several generals, which often compromised the success of operations. Of all the generals, the most famous is Belisarius. These are his talents as a man of war that made him famous and made his lasting fame. His talents as a strategist in the wars broke out against the Vandals and cons of the Goths. On two occasions he brought back to Constantinople , chained, the kings he had conquered: Gelimer king of barbarians , and Vitiges , king of the Ostrogoths. Born around 500 in Germania , the borders of Thrace and Illirye, it was perhaps Ascending siblings. It was the size and look of a hero: tall and handsome, he was endowed with exceptional physical strength led him often to expose themselves in battle but won him the admiration of his soldiers he treated with rigor and fairness. Modern historians have often issued harsh judgments about the reality of his abilities as a strategist. Charles Diehl , however, that paints a portrait very appreciative of Belisarius , finally insists on its shortcomings. Military writers, they have never spared praise emphasizing the originality of his ideas and the skill with which he was able to implement them while the staff at his disposal were always outnumbered those of his opponents. With Belisarius , Sitta was one of the most brilliant generals of Justinian, all his actions announced a first class strategist. He was killed in battle in 538 , in Armenia , where Justinian had sent down a revolt. Unlike Belisarius , Narses , who was his rival, is highly regarded by historians of the reign. In 537 , he achieves a delicate mission of reconciliation to restore peace in Alexandria when the city was torn by religious strife. His military career began at from 538 but it was not until 541 that was given to reveal its capabilities in-chief. Another leader of great value, Germanos, was a nephew of Justinian, he rose to the highest commands but never became a close. Other generals of talent coming in second place: Solomon , said to a devotee of Belisarius, the Ostrogoth Bessas, John, the nephew of Vitaliano and Bouza and Courtzs. The conquests of Justinian (orange) mainly over the western half of the Mediterranean. The choice of war is a political choice overall, which is not a nostalgic attachment to the past but reflects the current realities of the Empire. Its elites certainly take peace for the highest good, but they believe that the Emperor has the right to make war on anyone, anywhere if he has the means. After decades of folding when the imperial government had to defend against external and internal dangers, often in small ways, by dint of patience, using all the tricks of intrigue and diplomacy, the Empire is, for the first time, away from immediate danger and has resources that enable it to intervene outside the borders. Buoyed by the growing population and economy that several provinces have since the early fourth century, it is rich and imperial finances are in surplus. Despite the war against the Persians and the revolt of Vitaliano , despite the tax cuts he has decided, Anastasius left in the coffers of the Empire until his death in 518 , a reserve of 320 000 books gold, 23 million gold coins representing the state spending for three years. Since the decision to resume a policy of political expansion is taken and given the experience gained in earlier centuries, the West is the only region where victories can be undertaken with any chance of success. From the beginning of his reign Justinian seems to have a goal to restore the ancient Roman Empire around the Mediterranean ( restauratio imperii ). But for this he must first put an end to the fight against Persia , whose troops were at the gates of Antioch in 529. Belisarius won some success between 529 and 531 , but finally preferred Justinian in 532 , the purchase peace it is necessary to achieve its reconquest in the West. Forehead East , the refusal Kavadh to adopt his son Chosroes I. by Emperor opens a period of direct confrontation with Persia. On several occasions, to achieve domestic political goals, while making operations of looting and without losing the hope of acquiring territory, King Persian Empire cons triggers wars confrontations reminiscent of the third century. Faced with these initiatives, the policy of Justinian is no lack of consistency. It is to contain the outbreak of the Persian armies by force or by peace or truce expensive. But at the same time, he tries to push the effort of evangelization in the East and explore routes to bypass the territory of Persia to overcome the control that the Sassanid carry trade with the Far East. Since the proposed alliance was rejected by Kavadh, the territorial dispute between the Empire and Persia resumed its importance but the war between the two empires over the frame. Aware of the magnitude that it can take, after the truce established following the death of Justin I , Justinian began to reorganize the border, especially in regions of the Caucasus and Armenia , where the first confrontation took place in a political, social and religious often determines the outcome. On balance, the war did not allow the Persians to achieve real success. The victory Callinicum itself had no decisive result. Everywhere the imperial armies were held and no major city has been taken. Kavadh but had nevertheless demonstrated the imperial government that peace could be achieved without an agreement acceptable to both parties. However, the needs of the Monarchy Golden Sassanid were important. The prosperity of its finances depended on the ability of King to win his nobility. Anyway, the time has come for peace. Khosrow I. is ready to agree when it is not a peace of defeat but a peace which he can rely to of nobility, because he must above all consolidate his power. Justinian sends a delegation of four ambassadors: Rufin , Alexander, Thomas and Hermogenes. Khosro proposes to give the Empire a hundred and ten years of peace, provided that the commander of the Army of Mesopotamia lies neither in Dara or in its vicinity but Constantine , we surrender the fortresses and Pharange of Bole in Lazica and pay him a tribute of 100 pounds of gold. Ambassadors agree to these conditions, except the fortresses of Lazica for which they wish to seek the advice of the emperor. Meanwhile, Khosro mass an army around Nisibis and is ready for a possible resumption of war. With the acceptance of Justinian, to avoid the immediate resumption of the war, Rufin allows, in return, to obtain satisfaction for their claims and, in addition, a sum of money. Hermogenes Rufin and then enter an "eternal peace". Justinian pays at once a tribute of 11,000 pounds of gold equivalent to twenty annual installments, or 72 000 pieces of gold. The two empires mutually restored the places they have taken Lazica. Justinian, in turn, recognized the suzerainty of the Persian king on Iberia. Any litigation between the two empires having been resolved to their mutual consent, peace appears to rest on solid foundations. Before being conquered by Genseric and occupied by the people vandal , the North Africa was one of the most densely populated and richest of the Empire. Rome was still dependent on exports of wheat, olives and olive for its oil supplies. Despite the dissension that had opposed the Donatists to Catholics , the church occupied in society, which held a hegemonic position in the social origin of its bishops , to the extent of his landholdings and radiation that gave him a line thinkers including Saint Augustine War against the Ostrogoths The murder by her husband Theodat , daughter of Theodoric the Great , Queen Amalasuntha , is mentioned by Justinian the pretext to invade Italy in 535. Both armies are the armies of the pincer Ostrogoths , one from Dalmatia , the other of Sicily , under the direction of the indispensable Belisarius. He takes possession of Naples and occupies Rome on 10 December 536 , and finally Ravenna in 540 , despite the stubborn resistance of the new king Vitiges. This last is taken prisoner and sent to Constantinople , where Justinian treated with honor. But the emperor made the mistake in 540 , to disgrace Belisarius , whom he evidently feared the popularity and had already tried to control by sending Narses as second, to 538. The utter failure of this attempt had led to the recall of Narses a year later. In 540 , the recall of Belisarius in the capital, where he was appointed honorary mission more than real commands, also corresponds to a new offensive in Persia in the Caucasus and in Syria. Peace is finally signed in 562 , and leads to an increase of Byzantine influence in Armenia and the Caucasus. Also in 540 , the capital is threatened by the Bulgarians do not get rid of which Justinian by launching them against the Avars , who settle in the valley of the Danube. These difficulties allow Ostrogoths , led by Totila to resume the offensive and win twice the Byzantines (Faenza, then Mugillo in Italy Central). The city of Naples is back in 543 , that of Rome on 17 December 546. It was not until the arrival of Narses in 552 , to see the situation turn to advantage the troops of Justinian. Narses only commander in chief this time, and provided a strong army, is proving a great military leader, causing the defeat of the Ostrogoths Taginae ( 552 ) in Umbria , where Totila is killed. The last resistance are scanned in 553 at Mount Lactarus , near Vesuvius , where their last king, is killed TEIAS. In 555 an invasion Narses crushes Alamanni near Capua. The Italian has returned to Rome, but at the cost of the ruin of the peninsula. Taking advantage of the call using the Visigoth king Athanagild , struggling against a competitor, I. Agila , Justinian is to give its support prices of the former province of Betic (modern Andalusia ) in 554 , and imposes Byzantine suzerainty in the kingdom of Visigoths. Justinian was the last emperor to attempt to reunite the two parts of the old Roman Empire. His successors, though they will not give up the title, note the final separation between East and West. Upon his accession to power Justinian is a sound economic and financial situation thanks to the wise policy pursued by his predecessor as Anastasius I.. This leaves him free hand to implement its program of restoration and unification of the Roman world. From the beginning of his reign he applies to a broad legal reform. Various committees, headed by lawyer Tribonian , competent but disliked for its venality, are responsible for restoring order in all the imperial constitutions issued since Hadrian. This reorganization, the Corpus Juris Civilis , is what we call the Justinian Code ( 529 ) written in Latin , the vernacular of the Roman Empire , which was not understood by most citizens of the empire Orient. A second version, the Codex retitae praelectionis, the only one we have, that of 529 being lost, is published in 534. In 529, Justinian closed the Neoplatonic School of Athens , then headed by the Damascios Diadochus , and that extends illustrates Plato's Academy, closed with Sulla in 86 BC. AD : seven philosophers (Damascius the Diadochus, Simplicios of Cilicia, Lydia Priscian, Eulamios of Phrygia, Phoenicia Hermias, Diogenes of Phoenicia, Isidore of Gaza) had to take refuge with the Persian king Khosro I, and returned in 533. In 533 is published as the Digest (or Pandects), which corresponds to a modernization of the entire ancient laws and a synthesis of ancient jurisprudence. There is also a manual for teaching law, the Institutes ( 533 ). Finally the new laws, intended by Justinian Novels are written in Greek , the lingua franca of the empire after 534. This legislative work is of fundamental importance in the West because it was the form of Justinian received the medieval West from the eleventh centuryI adopts the Roman law. Justinian also undertakes many administrative reforms, contained mainly in large Novels of the period 535 - 536. Their aim is mainly to strengthen the power of the emperor in dismembering the major offices, to fight against the worrying development of large estates and against endemic corruption of imperial officials. Also, often for tax reasons, Justinian includes various provinces, considered of insufficient size and to simplify the local administration, removes a number of dioceses and groups sometimes, as in Egypt shaken by unrest regular civil authorities and the hands of military commanders. Justinian sees itself as the chosen of God, his representative and his vicar on earth. It sets itself the task of being the champion of orthodoxy in his war and he makes great effort to spread the Orthodox faith, either in the way he dominates the church and fought the heresy . He wants to govern the Church as a master, and, in return for protection and favors with which he fills, he imposes his will, proclaiming himself Emperor and priest significantly . Legislative action is therefore of Justinian in the period, with particular attention to the Church. Indeed, the emperor is a sincere Christian, and he considers himself the supreme leader of the Church. The Christianity is an institutional perspective and legal state religion. It is this rule that a fastidious attention to detail the conditions of recruitment of clergy, their status, the organization of the administration of ecclesiastical property. He legalizing control bishops on local civilian authorities, which has the curious effect of mitigating the excesses of centralizing many of its decisions. Indeed, provincial notables who participate in episcopal elections, and can express their opinions, and partly control the use of certain public funds. Justinian is confronted with recent resurgence of paganism, against whom he acted with vigor. Thus he concludes the Academy of Plato in Athens , then headed by Damase , and forbids the worship of pagan gods, especially in some remote regions of Anatolia. He persecutes the Jews that used coercion attracts little conversions. That internal strife of the Christian churches that Justinian trying to end to maintain the cohesion of the empire. That is why he attempted a rapprochement with the Monophysite , many in the eastern part of the empire (in Syria and Egypt ), especially since the religious convictions of Theodora are notoriously close to their own. The empress in 537 , does not hesitate to order Belisarius , who fights then Italy , to capture the pope Silvere to replace Vigil , reputed to be less intransigent towards what the papacy regarded as heresy. However, Justinian must also deal with various popes needed in its business of reclaiming the Italy. This policy lever is illustrated in the case known as Chapter Three : Under the charge of Nestorianism , Justinian ordered that the memory of three theologians detested by the Monophysite ( Theodore Mopsuestia , Ibas of Edessa and Theodoret Cyr ), hoping to join the official church. The fifthcouncil Ecumenical 553 formalizes the sentence, saw its orders very unwelcome in the West, especially by Pope Vigilius that Justinian is kidnapped to force him to accept the Three Chapters, without rallying the Monophysite. For his actions, Justinian is considered holy by the Orthodox Church. It is celebrated on August 2 or November 14 or November 15 with his wife Theodora . In the early decades of the sixth century, considering the demographics, the territory and highlighted the general enrichment of society, the economy of the Empire reached a peak, despite the state of poverty of a significant portion of the peasantry. The two main factors of growth, population growth and increased trade, were more powerful than the weight of the burdens imposed by the state. The economy of the Empire lacked capital. It is this lack that led State to take charge of himself, even to postpone the burden on taxpayers, the services and tasks which were essential. The imperial economy was undeniably rich and powerful in the early sixth century but had not developed circuits that were across the vast territory covered by the Empire. And it is also the State which took the place of private initiatives in building a fledgling world-economy. In fact, the structures of the economy showed a net withdrawal from the political structures. The destruction of the Vandal kingdom, and the decline in piracy resulting increase, the dynamism of the economy. The merchants of Egypt and Syria maintain a fairly dynamic trade with the West, including Gaul Merovingian, where they sell oil, dried fruit, fine wines, glassware from Syria and papyrus. The empire is fueled by slaves in the Black Sea. It has trade relations with Ceylon through the Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum , with China by the Silk Road . The need to supply the Byzantine silk workshops, and a willingness to circumvent the Persia of the Sassanid , partly explains the company policy by Justinian to enter the Caucasian peoples in the sphere of influence of the empire. From 552 - 553 , thanks to the illegal import of Chinese silk worm, also begins Byzantium itself to produce silk. It should be noted however, that the empire and its economic relations are deeply disturbed by a large outbreak of "plague," who besides historians give the name of Justinian plague. Cultural life is intense under Justinian and deeply marked by the personality and concerns of the emperor. We find in the historian Procopius , who wrote the history of the reign of Justinian, the research of Roman greatness behind the imperial couple (which, however, he slandered a lot). Hymns (religious poems) of the Melodious Romanos ( Romanus the Melode ) are a faithful echo of the deep Christian faith, quoiqu'intolrante of Justinian and Theodora. He rebuild Antioch , under the name Theopolis after its destruction by an earthquake in 526 , and being looted by the Persians in 538. Justinian first dedicated significant resources to the rebuilding of Constantinople , after its destruction by the Nika sedition , and is also a great builder. He rebuilt it as a priority the building of the place of the Augustaion with its porticoes, and those of the Mese to the forum Constantine are rebuilt. The propylaea the palace, the bronze doors, baths Zeuxippus, particularly the Hagia Sophia. The restoration of the wall of Theodosius II , which will safeguard the city until its capture by the Crusaders in 1204 , a masterpiece of military architecture which inspired the remains, even today, a feeling of power and grandeur. It is the main element of a set comprising a gap of 15 to 20 m wide, a glaze, a first wall provided with 96 laps and then the wall itself, which rises to 11 m high and is reinforced by 86 towers. Justinian built, near Hagia Sophia, a huge tank named "Basilica Cistern" on the location of the high court precedent the "imperial portico," where judges and lawyers were preparing their cases. With a length of 138 m by 65 wide, it contained 28 rows of 12 columns, 336 in all, which rested on the edge of brick arches which amounted to 8 m above the ground. It supplies water to Constantinople in the Ottoman era. He built the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (dedicated to Divine Wisdom, Sophia in Greek) with the help of two architects, one hundred master builders and ten thousand workers. The construction of the new church begin at 532 , once the rubble is cleared. It was completed in five years and officially consecrated on 27 December 537. Justinian awarded the design of the monument and construction management to Anthemius Tralles and Isidore of Miletus. Hagia Sophia is part of a rectangle 77 of 71.70 m and has, like all cathedrals, three aisles separated by colonnades. What is striking is the unprecedented scale, surface and volume of interior space. The first dome collapsed in 558 , a second was rebuilt in 562. The great dome whose diameter is 31 m, is the center of the nave to 54 m above the ground. Throughout the empire, Justinian finance the construction of cities, bridges, baths, and roads. Justinian died on the night of November 14 to 15 565 , probably in his sleep, without designating a successor, but his nephew, curopalate Justin, was immediately sworn in by Senate as successor ( Justin II ). His coffin was deposited in the Imperial Necropolis of the Church of the Holy Apostles (Constantinople) , in a marble tomb lined inside with plates of gold: he had watched himself to his execution. Preceded by Belisarius died a few months earlier, in March 565. One of his last legislative acts concerning the date of Christmas : he stared at December 25 while in Jerusalem and neighboring countries were celebrating the birth of Christ on January 6. This is probably the last year of his reign that Corippe alluded noting that "the old man did not care about anything, everything already frozen, it burned more than love of another life ; was toward the sky while his mind was turned, already forgetful of this body, he thought that the figure of this world was over. " The same author maintains that "he had exhausted the tax advantage of up empty." Justinian and Theodora are represented in their imperial ornaments, with the dignitaries of their court by two famous panels of tiles visible in the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. Linguistic heritage, bilingualism is a common phenomenon in the East since the early days of Christianity. At the Aramaic has added the Greek. Then the Arab took place in this world culture, from the time when the Byzantine Empire had shrunk. The Aramaic language was strong enough to hold during long centuries, the role of international language in the East. Having eliminated the Assyrian , Persian ancient, the Hebrew and dialects Canaanite in popular speech, she triumphed at Palmyra (tariff discovered, dating from 156) and Edessa (Christian) , where the mass is controlled Aramaic by an Arab aristocracy. The Aramaic language is written in Nabatean Arab inhabitants of the oases and the Hijaz in the Arabian Peninsula. The fate of Arabic script writing cursive Nabataean, from a transformation that began in the second century after Christ. The princes of Edessa, considered Arabs by the Romans , have Arabic names, or Nabatean s "class =" mw-redirect "> Parthians. They reigned for three hundred and fifty-two years. The Western Aramaic became the language common in Palestine at the time of Jesus of Nazareth. - The Christians of Palestine, writes Karl Brockelmann , like all their fellow Aramaic, are from the third century, the entire length of the intellectual center of Edessa, and consequently use long translations of the Bible that come. Only discussions Christological ( Christology ), which also divide the Christian East, while removing this dependence. The Palestinians are " Melkite "(the word comes from Malik," king ") and supporters of the proposals of the Council of Chalcedon accepted by the emperor of Byzantium , and as such they break with the Syrian Orthodox Church and the Nestorians of the is, and create, from about the sixth century, an original literature. The Byzantine Empire , for its medieval period, formally speaking Greek. Byzantium collects and cultural heritage of ancient Greece and forget the legacy of Latin letters, it has never really thorough. The language issue raises the question of the identity of Byzantium: is it a state or a Greek Roman Empire "Orient"? Foreigners, Western and Eastern designate it as a Greek state. In Byzantium itself, the Greek is exalted as the vector for the spread of Christianity in the empire, to the extent that the New Testament has been written in Greek. However, the Empire is not identified with a Greek state, firstly because the reality of the empire from the invasions of the seventh century, is a multilingual environment where minorities East Slavic Armenian and Syriac even occupy different regions and even in Constantinople, an important place. Moreover, the Byzantines themselves as guardians of a universal mission and providential, entrusted by God to the Christianized Roman Empire, and more widely as the new chosen people. The Greek language is so collected, in a universalist or "imperialist," as the language of true religion "orthodox" and the Roman Empire, intended to cover all humanity. In theory and in practice, the Greek language represents a perfect synthesis of Byzantine identity, both Christian and Roman. 
Origins, and Character Training
The organization of the army and reform of Justinian
Foreign policy of Justinian
Choosing a policy of expansion
Peace with Persia Sassanid
War against the Vandals
detail "> Main article: United vandal. 
implement legislative and administrative
Religious Policy
Economy and Physical
Prosperity commercial and cultural and artistic life
The Builder
The end
See also
Cultural heritage
The Greek language preference of the Eastern Roman Empire
References
Related articles
External Links
on Preceded by Justinian Followed by Justin I. 
Byzantine Emperor 527 - 565 Justin II 
Portal History 
Portal of the High Middle Ages 
Portal of the Byzantine world 
Ancient Rome portal
Loading ...