Joppa
32 03'16 .23 "N 34 45'6 .36" E / 32.0545083, 34.7517667
Jaffa (in Arabic ; in Hebrew , Standard Hebrew Tiberian Hebrew in Tell al-Amarna tablets from 1350 BC., Yapu) is the southern part of the ancient city of Tel Aviv-Jaffa in Israel. This is one of the oldest ports of the world on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
The port of Jaffa, in great demand in antiquity and the Middle Ages was, as the two other ports of Palestine old - Acre and Caesarea , one of the important steps in the routes to the East Europeans. In the Middle Ages, Jaffa was one of the Levant , although of secondary importance compared to Acre. Part of the port and some ancient mosaics survived until today.
Jaffa, now in the last millennium a predominantly Arab city, merged in 1950 with the new Jewish city of Tel Aviv.
The name or Yaffa Yaffo is probably of Semitic origin, related etymologically to the word Hebrew yoff (written ) which means "beauty"; yaffa in Hebrew means "beautiful") . Yaffa is mentioned on the list of Thutmose III and papyrus Egyptian ancients as YP. On the shelves of Tell el-Amarna and registration of Sennacherib as Yapu. In the Arab geographer Al-Muqaddasi she is remembered as the Yaffa, employed by the Arabs to this day. In the Old Testament ( Hebrew Bible ) the Mediterranean Sea is named Jaffa (Yafo Yam) and in the Midrash the sea of Jaffa (Yafo shel Yama).
History
Antiquity. Egyptian Chanaanens, Philistines and Hebrews
The existence of Jaffa is attested since at least 3500 years and is taken by the Egyptians around 1465 BC. J.-C for a very long period - up to approx. 800 BC. AD ancient site itself is marked today by the hill that rises Tell Yaffa at an altitude of 40 m and which today is dominated by the church Franciscan Saint - Pierre. The natural port of Jaffa has been used since the Bronze Age through. It is mentioned for the first time in Egyptian sources, including an epistle dated about 1470 BC. BC, which boasts the pharaoh Thutmose III had conquered the city by a ruse that reminds the Trojan - Egyptian as 200 fighters were hidden in baskets as gifts to the governor chanaanen of the city. The name of the community also appears in the tablets of Tell el-Amarna.
Yaffa, under its Hebrew name Jaffa is mentioned in the Old Testament ( Tanakh ) four times. In the book of Joshua (Yehoshua), the city is one of the boundary points in the domain of the tribe Hebrew Dan. Are unloaded in the port the cedars imported from Phoenicia and for the construction of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem in the tenth centuryBC. AD and its reconstruction in the Fourth - fifth century BC. AD Yaffo is also the starting point of the prophet Jonah (Yona) in his unfortunate trip to Tarsus (Tarshish). Apart from the Egyptians, Jaffa is controlled by Chanaanens , and for long by the Philistines , including the kingdom of Ashdod. It is, temporarily, the ancient Jewish kingdoms - the Israel together - as kings Solomon and David , and later under some of the kings of Judea.
Under the Assyrian conquest, Babylonian and Persian. The Hellenes
Then the city known as the whole region, the invasion Assyrian led by King Sennacherib (702/701 BC.), then toward 605/604 domination of neo-Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II (Nabu or -Kudur-Usuri, 605-562), followed by the Persian Achaemenid. During the Achaemenid rule, it is now under the control of the Phoenicians of Sidon. The king of Sidon Eshmunazar II (or Eshmun'azar or Eshmunazar or Eshmounezer) receives a gift of the Persians and built a temple to the god Eshmoun. The city will then come under the control of the Greeks during the conquest of the King of Macedonia Alexander the Great (336-323). After Alexander's death and the division of his empire, Jaffa and the region will be the site of power struggles between various Diadochi claiming successors of the Macedonian: Egypt's Ptolemaic Dynasty and the Seleucids. She eventually returned to the Seleucids.
The Hasmonean period
The residents of Jaffa, Greeks or Hellenized , are hostile to the anti-Hellenic revolt of Judas Maccabeus (Yehuda Makkabi). They make up a large number of Jews on ships and then drown in the sea Judas Maccabeus punishes them by passing the town by fire and sword. But they still oppose resistance are difficult and only later defeated by Jonathan Maccabeus (to -147 ) and again by Simon Maccabeus (Shimon Makkabi).
Although it dominates militarily, the Seleucid king Antiochus VII Sidet abandons Jaffa John Hyrcanus I (to -134 ) to the alliance between the Hasmonean and Roman. Jaffa and came under the control of the Jewish kingdom, first under the dynasty of Hasmonean dynasty and then the Herodians or Antipatrides. It was around this time that the city is repopulated by Jews.
Roman rule. Gentiles, Samaritans, Christians and Jews in Jaffa
In 63 BC. BC, Pompey , the conqueror in Judea between the administrative point of view Jaffa, Joppa, so called, the rest of the country. But Julius Caesar makes a gift to the Jewish king Hyrcanus II. Marc Anthony gave, in turn, to his beloved Cleopatra , Queen of Egypt. Later Herod the Great has returned to the part of Octavian Augustus. During the war of the Jews in 66 AD. AD, the city was sacked by Roman soldiers Cestius Gallus , and about 8400 people were massacred, according to the testimony of Flavius Josephus. Nevertheless, Jews were reorganized and transformed the port of Jaffa in a naval base where they direct attacks against the Roman vessels that go to Syria or to the Egypt. In 67 AD. AD Yaffa was conquered by the imperial troops of the new commander Vespasian after fierce battles immortalized on Roman coins imprinted navalis Judea and Victoria navalis.
Vespasian attack during a stormy night, and some of the inhabitants who fled in boats off the sea, sank and drowned. Jaffa is permanently annexed by Rome as the Flavia Joppa.
Besides a large Christian community in the city continues to live as Jews, mentioned in the Talmud. After the repression of the last Jewish revolt - that of Shimon Bar Kochba in 135, the Samaritans are expanding their range of settlement and also settled on the coast, including in Jaffa.
In the New Testament and the Acts of the Apostles , Jaffa appears in the story about the apostle Peter who has revived the Jewish widow Tabitha (or Dorcas ) (in Hebrew Tzvi? = gazelle ) and who has been in the house of Simon the Corroyer , the vision of equality in the eyes of God between Jews and Gentiles. A painting depicting the latter event can be seen in St. Peter's Church in Jaffa. Tabitha's grave is in a neighborhood east of Jaffa, Abu Kabir, where it is sheltered by an Orthodox church Russian (Church St. Tabitha).
The Talmud - the Mishna and the Gemara tell the Jewish sages, of tannaim and Amoraim who have lived and been active in Jaffa: Rav Adda Adda DeRabbie Brey Rabbi Hiya man of Jaffa, Rabbi Tankhum of Jaffa, Rabbi Yokhanan (Yudan ) of Jaffa, Rabbi of Yaffo Nakhman (or Yaacov of Kassrin). The ancient cemetery of Jaffa is home to several ancient Jewish graves. The Jews of Jaffa in this period were either natives of the country is returning to Alexandria , of Cappadocia , of Cyrene , of Chios , in Thessaly , etc.. They worked in the trade of textiles and perfumes in the making and washing clothes and fishing. But the city went into the III-IV centuries AH in the area controlled by the Samaritans. This population, which revolted many times, much narrower after the massacres and forced conversions carried out by the emperors Byzantine. Because of the hostility and even aggression by neighbors Hellenic Christians, Jews had also, in the end, leave the place.
The Middle Ages
The Byzantine period
In Jaffa live to this day an ancient Christian community, of various rituals. Speaking formerly the Greek and Aramaic , it was a majority for domination Byzantine. After the arrival of Arabs in the seventh century, it became mostly Arabic. Today the Christian community has greatly diminished, as the entire Christian population of Palestine , as a result of successive migrations, and persecution perpetrated by Arab Muslims.
Under the administration of Byzantium , Jaffa is part of the province Palaestina Prima and is still an important port, as evidenced by Cyril of Alexandria. From the fifth century Yaffa became a bishopric. Two bishops of the city, Fidus (in 431) and Elias (in 536) are participating in the councils of the Church.
The Arab Caliphate
During the reign of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab , the Arabs under the leadership of one of its famous commander, Amr ibn al-As , conquered the city, under the banner of Islam in 636. Under the new Muslim government (the Caliphate Umayyad , Abbasids and Fatimids ), a small number of Jews were allowed back into the city and live there until the arrival of the Crusaders in the eleventh century.
The new city of Ramla became the capital of Jund Falastin district, which replaces the province of the Roman and Byzantine Palaestina Prima and is now part of the province of Syria (Sham), whose capital is Damascus. Ramla enjoyed the services of the port of Jaffa. Gradually, the population of Jaffa and became Arabised town becomes a city Arab , being later at the end of the domination of the Ottomans in the nineteenth century under the British Mandate and the twentieth century , the largest Arab urban center Palestine, exceeding population Jerusalem , Gaza and Haifa.
The Crusaders
The Crusaders of Godfrey of Bouillon conquered Jaffa in 1099. The following year, Pisa , maritime power of the moment, and who worked for the carriage of Christian pilgrims from Europe, the king receives Godfrey privileges in the port of Jaffa. King Baudouin I. y creates the County of Jaffa and entrusts Hugues I of Puiset. When Count Hugues II Puiset is accused of adultery with the Queen of Jerusalem , Melisende , the county was divided, and the city of Jaffa was annexed to the royal domains. Therefore the crown princes of the Kingdom of Jerusalem also begin to wear the title of Counts of Jaffa and Ascalon. "
One of the Counts of Jaffa, Jean d'Ibelin was an author of the famous codex The Assizes of Jerusalem. The traveler Jew of Spain Benjamin of Tudela will find at this time one in Jaffa Jew, a dyer.
On 10 September 1191 , three days after the battle of Arsouf , Jaffa engages in Richard the Lion Heart. Despite the efforts of Saladin to reoccupy the 30 July 1192 (during Richard's absence), the city falls into the hands of the English king time income. On 2 September 1192 we signed the Treaty of Jaffa , which guarantees three years of truce between two warring camps: Catholic Christians and Muslims.
The Teutonic Knights received in 1196 more properties in Jaffa from the hands of King Henry II of Champagne. But in 1196 , taking advantage of the funeral of King Henry to Acre , the Sultan Ayyubid of Damascus , Adel Malik , the brother of Saladin reconquered Jaffa, including massacring 20 000 Crusaders. The city, however, soon resumed, once again, by the Christian forces. Its walls will be strengthened on the occasion of the arrival in the Holy Land two illustrious rulers. The first, in 1228 was the German Emperor and King of Sicily and Jerusalem, Frederick II Hohenstaufen , the Stupor Mundi. He managed to get to Jaffa on 18 February 1229 a peace treaty highly advantageous with Sultan Malik al-Kamil of Egypt. Later, in 1250 arrived in Jaffa King Louis IX of France , which has recently been released from captivity in Egypt. Accompanied by his wife, Margaret of Provence , he built a convent and a church.
The Mamluks
In 1268 the Sultan (original Cuman ) Abu Taher al Fatah Baybars , after victories over the Mongols and the Crusaders in Palestine , conquered Jaffa without a fight and the annex to the Egyptian Mamluk. Baybars killed on this occasion a large party of people and demolishing houses and walls of the city. It leaves intact only two laps for the use of his fighters. The following century, the fourteenth century, Jaffa again as a port for Christian pilgrims, but in all aspects, for two successive centuries the town lapse. In 1345 it was destroyed again, on the order of a Mameluke sultans, for fear that it could serve as basis for a new crusade. In the late fifteenth century, the Christian traveler Cotwyk and Rabbi Meshullam Volterra (in 1481 ) are in ruins Jaffa.
Ottoman rule (1516 - 1918)
After the conquest of Palestine by the Sultan Ottoman Selim I in 1516 , Jaffa still retains some importance in the region's trade and pilgrimage for Christians to the Holy Land. In the seventeenth century, in 1654 the monks Franciscans opened here a hostel , near the present St. Peter's Monastery. We also built churches, a mosque and a hostel Armenian. At the end of the century Jaffa is a small community of 400 houses without exterior walls.
In the middle of the eighteenth century, under the auspices of the governor of Gaza , Hussein ibn Radwan is initiated the redevelopment of the city, hoping to squeeze more profits, it creates more favorable conditions for the Christian communities and their pilgrims. In those years through the port of Jaffa around 4000 pilgrims a year, mostly Christians, but few Jews. For the latter, in 1753 Rabbi Yaakov Donama (or Zonana) opens a temporary hostel.
Since the early eighteenth century, Jaffa arrives to take the place of Ramle as district administrative center. (Under the Ottoman Turks, Palestine was then part of Syria , respectively Vilayet of Damascus ).
In the late eighteenth century, however, Jaffa knows of stormy weather. In the 1770 fighting broke out between the governor of the Galilee , Dahar al-Umar and his rivals in Syria , the Lebanon and Palestine. In 1772 his army reached the gates of Jaffa, which was defended by Toukan Ahmed, brother of the governor of Nablus. Despite the support of the fleet Russian Dahar al Umar succeeded in occupying Jaffa after seven months of siege. In 1776 , the Muhammad Bey Abu Dahab, former ally Mamluk Dahar and yet arrived at the head of Egypt's advance south of Palestine Jaffa and faces fierce resistance. After 66 days of failure, the Egyptian commander dupe the besieged and pretends to fall with them at an agreement. While people were celebrating the so-called "peace" achieved, the Muslims of Abu Dahab manage to enter the city. There followed a general ransacking, they destroy houses and crops and carry out massacres and executions. Abu Dahab ordered to behead approx. 1500 male population, and the heads of the victims are buried in a small hill called Tel al since Rus (Hill heads).
Napoleon at Jaffa
Just restored, must endure the Jaffa on March 3rd to March 7th 1799 the siege and bombardment by Soldiers French of General Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Egypt. According to some accounts the messengers sent with the French ultimatum to Napoleon, were arrested, tortured, castrated and decapitated and then their heads are exposed, impaled on the walls of the city.
Under these conditions, the city is not formed. After the conquest, she was sacked, many local women are raped, and the governor of Turkey Abdullah Bey is executed. Bonaparte does not want to consider the promise of his adopted son Eugne de Beauharnais to save the lives of the captives, and also motivated by economic reasons, ordered that much of Turkish prisoners, sources said about 2440, 4100 according to others , many of them Albanians , were shot or stabbed with bayonets. Some hundreds of Egyptians are allowed to leave. Napoleon hoped that the unfortunate fate of Jaffa intimidate supporters of other cities "of Syria." Instead, news of these atrocities will lead to even more daring resistance attacks against its forces. Added to this unexpected natural obstacles. It seems that since the French headquarters in Ramle , because of poor sanitation, spread with ease an outbreak of bubonic plague that will devastate the ranks of the population and also the soldiers of Napoleon.
On the eve of the retirement of Syria - Palestine , Napoleon suggested to doctors, as he had done earlier during the siege of Acre , to administer lethal doses of laudanum to soldiers who were seriously ill and could not be evacuated. But they say that doctors, including the famous Dr. Rene Desgenettes opposed, dismayed . Defeated in the north by the Turks, Napoleon abandoned Palestine. After leaving the British , allies of the Turks and ordered by Sidney Smith rebuilding the city walls.
In the years 1800 - 1 814 , according to a new seat from 9 months, the authority in Jaffa was taken by one who had previously resisted Napoleon at Acre, Ahmed Pasha, the governor of origin Bosnian from the town. Because of his cruelty, or perhaps from his past executioner in Egypt, he was known as Pasha Djezzar (Djezzar = butcher, in Arabic).
Abu Nabout
Between one thousand eight hundred and ten - 1,820 under the Governor mameluque (apparently it Circassian origin), known also by his rugged manners, Muhammad Agha, said Abu Nabout ("The Bastonneur"), the city experienced a period of rehabilitation during which to build the mosque Mahmudieh (in 1812 ) and a fountain for ritual travelers it Sbeil Nabout Abu-walls of the city are rebuilt again, we market landscape, we raise a door at the eastern entrance , open consulates abroad. The Jews also return to Jaffa and 1820 Seor Yeshayahu Ajimen of Istanbul, it opens an inn , adding a synagogue and a Jewish school - Beyt Midrash. In 1838 he was joined by Jews of Morocco that could not continue their journey to Safed, Jaffa and remain there to create a small area near the hostel. In 1818 Jaffa has a total of 6000 people, mostly Arabs. Abu Nabout, became pasha, arrived at extendre his authority to Gaza and even in Jerusalem.
Ibrahim Pasha. The Egyptian occupation
Between 1830 - 1840 power in Palestine, including Yaffa passes into the hands of Ibrahim Pasha , son of the viceroy of Egypt , Muhammad Ali, the founder of original Albanian of the last royal dynasty of that country.
The years of the Egyptian administration are quite favorable for the locality. Ibrahim Pasha is the port of Jaffa, an Egyptian naval base, plant orchards of oranges and lemons , takes settlers felakhs Arab from Egypt who founded the neighborhoods outside the city walls: Sakhanat al Masriye (then called Manshiye) , Sakhanat Abu Kabir and Sakhanat Darwish. But in 1837 the city feels a heavy earthquake that destroyed much of the houses. After the retreat of the Egyptians, under pressure from European powers, and restoration of the Ottoman central government, the population of Jaffa is growing.
The small Jewish community (122 persons in 1839 is developing under the leadership since 1840 , Rabbi Yehuda mi'Ragusa (from Ragusa ) (1783 - 1879).
The last years of Ottoman rule
After a period of instability or safety of the inhabitants of Palestine was jeopardized by attacks and looting carried out by local Bedouin tribes in the 1860s, the Turkish authorities succeed in restoring order and peace.
In the years 1870 Jaffa is part of Sandzak Koud ( Jerusalem , itself part of Vilayet (province) Syria (Sham) with its capital at Damascus. Since 1887 sanjak this - there is a sub-Governorate (moutasarriflik) independent of Damascus and led directly to Istanbul ( Constantinople ). Between 1868 - 1879 the number of residents in Jaffa as increasing (17 000 in 1887 ) there is a need to demolish the city walls. It opens several educational institutions and health.
In 1882 is based school (Catholic) of the Congregation of Christian Brothers of France , later called St. Joseph's College, which has an important role in promoting quality education in French.
In the 1870s we open the doors to a French hospital. It adds a government hospital, and hospitals in other ethnic and religious communities in the city. In 1900 - 1906 at a quarter-century reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II is raised in the center of Jaffa (and Jerusalem and some other cities of the Empire) a clock tower that will become One sign of the resort brand.
The railway Jaffa - Jerusalem
In 1869 Jaffa is connected to Jerusalem for the first time by a paved path, which is immediately covered by the personal carriage of the Emperor of Austria-Hungary , Francis Joseph I , Peregrine came after the inauguration of Suez Canal.
Very significant progress is made in 1892 with the completion of the first railway in Palestine that will link the same two cities. During the nineteenth century, Konrad Schick and Sir Moses Montefiore are among those who have proposed or tried to interest the Ottoman authorities and European powers in the construction of such railroad in Palestine , especially between the port of Jaffa and Jerusalem. Ultimately, the project takes shape thanks to the initiative of the contractor Jew Joseph Navon (1858 - 1934) of Jerusalem, in association with the banker original Swiss Johannes Frutiger, his former boss in the past and with the engineer Arab Georges Franjieh. It takes three years to succeed Navon to obtain permission from the Sublime Porte for this project on 28 October 1888. A year later he sold his rights to a French , while retaining some of the shares and being appointed to the Board. The Order of Navon, other businessmen of Western Europe joined the project. Many representatives of clergy Christians in the Holy Land have also contributed with their donations. Such performance is supported by The Society of Construction and Public Works of Paris. The work lasted two years between 1890 and 1892 and were finished in August 1892. The inauguration took place on 26 September 1892 in the presence of the official delegate of the Sultan. The locomotive of the first train is decorated with flags of the Ottoman Empire. The route of the railway for a distance of 87 km and a width of one meter, went to the station in Jaffa to the south - east, ran through the stations of Lod (Lydda) and Ramle , then directed by tacking along the Wadi a-STARS (Hebrew Nakhal Sorek ), skirting the villages of Arab Sejed, Dir-Abban (later Artouf, now known in Hebrew Bet Shemesh ), Dir-a-Shekh (today 'hui Bar Giora), and then rode in the mountains of Jerusalem, the ancient "way of donkeys, along the creek Nakhal Refaim and ended in the Valley (Emek) of Refaiym at the station in Jerusalem. With the exception of a short railway in Persia , was the first track of the Middle East. However, although more convenient than other means of transport, the train trip took two hours, unfortunately not as expected, but four whole hours, as the trip diligence.
The development of the city and improving the safety of residents favor building new Arab neighborhoods beyond the walls - eg Al Ajjami, Jebalya and Manshiye. Trade and industry are experiencing a boom: multiply the workshops and factories such as cigarettes, cement, tigles, leather goods, cotton mills, foundries etc ...
The beginnings of Arab nationalism in Jaffa
However, with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the reforms of the Young Turks and the growth of Jewish immigration began to emerge as a patriotic local Arabic or proto- nationalism Arab Palestinian. The pioneers of this movement are often among the ranks of Arab and Arab-speaking Christians.
In 1911 two cousins, Arab Orthodox Christians, Issa al Da'oud Issa ( 1878 - 1950 ) and Yusuf al-Issa in Jaffa began to edit the daily Arab nationalist Filastin (The Palestine ) that will act as a leader in the crystallization Local Arab Palestinian identity. The year begins at the Jaffa Party Patriotic Ottoman militating against selling land to Jews. Representatives of the Arabs of Jaffa, such as the Member of Parliament Ottoman Bey Hafez al-Sayid asking aloud the prohibition of Jewish immigration. In November 1918 the Arab notables from Jaffa, including a large weight had Christians, founded a "Muslim-Christian Association, which aims to promote Arab independence and resistance against the Zionist project.
Jews in Jaffa under the Ottoman regime. Center of the Zionist movement in Palestine
In the mid-nineteenth century, leaders of the Jewish Diaspora are expressing concern about the deplorable state in terms of economic and education of the Jews of Palestine, many of whom looked after the only study of sacred texts and were supported by donations from their home communities around the world. British Jewish philanthropist Sir Moses Montefiore visited Jaffa several times and bought in 1855 an orange grove to provide work for local Jews, but the test fails. In this place will emerge later a district of Tel Aviv, called the Montefiore (or Montefiori).
In 1869 the philanthropic organization the Alliance Israelite Universelle in Paris , his deputy Charles Netter succeeded in founding east of Jaffa (now in the area of jurisdiction of the nearby Israeli town of Holon ), an agricultural school appointed Jewish Mikveh Israel.
In the late nineteenth century, due to the growth of movements pre-Zionists still called the " Zionist practice "(directed towards the establishment of agricultural settlements) Hovevey Tzion Tzion or Hibat (the Lovers of Zion ) whose centers are in Eastern Europe - Romania and the Russian Empire (especially in Ukraine and Poland ), Jaffa, known to Jews as Yafo, becomes the center in Palestine. We open an office (initiated by the famous tea merchant and directed by Kalonymus Wissotzki Avraham Shmuel Moyal and then by Hirsch), and other Jewish institutions such as the Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium ( 1905 ), the seminar teachers E. Levinsky, hospital Shaar Tzion movement Bney Brith ( 1890 ), etc..
In 1890 - 1891 Vladimir Ze'ev Temkin will direct his "Committee Odessite "which buys land for Jewish immigrants. Jews from Yemen settled in 1881 north of the city where they founded the future Hateymanim Kerem neighborhood (the vineyard of Yemenis) formally established in 1904 and is today part of Tel Aviv. In 1887 at the initiative of the businessman originally from Algeria , Aharon Shlush (Chelouche) was built north of Jaffa, Neve Tzedek Jewish quarter (the House of Justice), and in 1890 the district Neve Shalom (House of Peace), now included in Neve Tzedek. Arise in those years still eight small Jewish neighborhoods in Jaffa or the surrounding area.
The Jews of Jaffa - Sephardic and Ashkenazi - are meeting temporarily in a united community. On 26 July 1903 it opened a subsidiary of the Anglo-Palestine Bank, the bank's first Jewish Palestine (now Bank Leumi ), which moves in 1921 to Tel Aviv. In 1898 arrived in town the founder of political Zionism , Theodor Herzl who is staying at the hotel Kaminitz. 1 000 people in 1882 the number of Jews in Jaffa account 1895 3000 (from a total of 18 000 inhabitants) individuals, then 5,000 in 1905. Between the years 1904 and 1921 Rabbi Avraham Yitzhak Hacohen Kook , one of the most influential figures of Orthodox Judaism of the twentieth century, holds the office of chief rabbi of the Jews of Jaffa. In 1908 , the city's population reached 40,000 inhabitants, including 8,000 Jews. Since 1908 , she became the center of the activity of Arthur Ruppin , delegate of the Jewish Agency , responsible for organizing Jewish emigration to Palestine. He opens the so-called Palestine Office and the office of "Company for Development of Palestine". In March 1908 occurred in Jaffa incidents between Arabs and Jews that followed, following the intervention of several Western consuls, including that of Germany, by the removal of local kaymakam Muhammad Assaf Bey, accused of being too tolerant of the violence practiced by some people and men of order. In autumn burst violent Arab demonstrations against Austria-Hungary in solidarity with Muslims in Bosnia , territory that had recently been annexed by the empire. In 1909 many Jews in Jaffa decide to build a new neighborhood to the north called early Akhuzat Bayit (the area of the house) and will become one year after Tel Aviv.
Jaffa during the First World War
The First World War between the Ottoman Empire, allied with the Central Powers in the coalition of the Agreement. Before the war, the city had 45,000 inhabitants, most of whom were Arab and also include a minority of 8,000 Jews. In Tel Aviv 1000 Jews live. In Jaffa are operating in several Turkish officers, including Mustafa Kemal , the future founder of Turkey today. In September 1914 the authorities abolished the system of capitulations and consuls in Jaffa lose their extra-territorial powers. Many Jews with foreign nationalities, suddenly find themselves without rights and treated as citizens of enemy powers. The governor of Arab-Bedouin Bakha ad-Din, takes on the order of Jamal Pasha measures of immediate deportation of Jewish male Nationality Russian. But in the end the deportations were arrested by the intervention of Germany and the United States. We try to run against the collection of a fee, a proceeding "Ottomanization" of these Jews. Baha ed Din is replaced by Hassan Bek Al Jabi. The mosque that he erected in 1916 , with its minaret can be seen today near the beach in Tel Aviv. The 9000 Jews of Jaffa and Tel Aviv, regarded with suspicion by the Turks, then all deported in April 1917 and found refuge either in other parts of Palestine, especially in Galilee , or in Egypt. The Turkish authorities made arrests and mass deportations also in the ranks of the Arabs who were dreaming of getting rid of the Ottoman rule. They must park in tents in the vicinity of the city. Thus in 1917 - 1918 the town was emptied of its inhabitants. The British later allow everyone to return to their homes.
On 16 November 1917 , soldiers entered the General Edmund Allenby in the city, marks the beginning of British occupation in Jaffa and after 1922 formally began the regime of Money - the mandate received by Great Britain from the League of Nations to allow the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
Jaffa under occupation and the British Mandate (1917 - 1948)
At the beginning of British rule after the return of exiled inhabitants miles by the Turks, the city has a population of 32,000 people. The Jewish community now has only 5,000 people. The city continues to expand eastward, or develop new areas, including Al Nuzha dominated Boulevard King George (former Blv. Jamal Pasha , now called Boulevard of Jerusalem), with an intense commercial life and the imposing mosque Al Nuzha. It opens up new institutions of public interest, as Dr. hospital. Dajani, with 50 beds in 1937 film Al Hamra (Alhambra) and in the years 1940 to 1941, among others, school-sponsored the merchant Hassan Arafa. Political life is marked by conflicts between the fraction of the mufti of Jerusalem, Hajj Amin al Husseini and his clan, and other fractions and families, leading to the end with the dissolution of the Muslim Association - Christian Jaffa.
The Arab riots in Yaffa 1 - May 7, 1921
The year 1921 is the setting of riots in the Arab population against the Jews stirred up and frightened by the prospect of creating a Jewish statehood in Palestine. In 1918 the Association of Muslim-Christian from Jaffa present a petition to the British authorities against the support given by the United Kingdom to the Zionist project. On other occasions the Association expressed in his statements to the effect that the Arabs have to choose between two alternatives: either throw the Zionists into the sea or be pushed by them to leave the desert. In February 1919 appears in an underground organization Arab Jaffa "The Black Hand" whose goal is to "kill the snake Zionist" as it is small. In early 1920 , together with Arabs from other parts of the country, the Arabs of Jaffa to come forward and seek the annexation of Palestine, also known as "southern Syria", the new kingdom ephemeral based in Damascus by Faisal ibn Hussein.
During his visit to Palestine in April 1921 the British colony, Sir Winston Churchill , rejects the request of Arab notabilis end to Jewish immigration and to abandon the foundation of the Jewish National Home that was provided by the Balfour Declaration of 2 November 1917. On 1 May 1921 , a crowd of Arab Yaffa, accompanied by policemen armed with Arab guns, triggers a wave of violence and looting against the Jewish inhabitants of the town and its neighboring areas Neve Shalom Neve Tzedek Manshiye mixed neighborhood and the tenants of the House of Immigrants Ajjami neighborhood, where on this occasion are massacred 13 Jews and 26 others are injured, are affected. 6 other Jews are killed in an isolated house surrounded by a garden of orange trees in the neighborhood of Abu Kabir. Among the victims is the writer Hebrew Yosef Haiym Brenner , young writers Louidor Yosef Tzvi and Shatz and others of their friends. The pretext for his killing was two Jewish demonstration for May 1 - one of the Jewish Communists who have faced each other - Jews socialists on the outskirts of Jaffa. Leaders of the Arab population of Jaffa, saw its manifestations vivid evidence of the threat of communism and the "immorality" provided they believe the country by Jewish newcomers.
British police involved with a few days late, we managed to prevent the advance of Arab attackers to Tel Aviv. The troubles also extend against the Jewish settlements of Petah Tikva , Hadera , Rehovot and tend to inter-community relations in Hebron , Jerusalem , Nablus , etc.. Them result in a temporarily successful, the British High Commissioner Sir Herbert Samuel decided to limit, but only for the time, Jewish immigration to Palestine, to appease Arab opinion. Following these events, thousands of Jews fled Jaffa in Tel Aviv. The Chief Rabbi Kook moved to Jerusalem forever. The city of Tel Aviv obtained administrative autonomy vis--vis the mayor of Jaffa, though the economic point of view it is still dependent on the mother-city neighbor in regard to places of employment, sources of supply, etc..
In 1929 and 1936 - 1939 Arab revolt broke news during which Jewish life is endangered. On 25 August 1929 some 2,000 Arabs of Jaffa are attempting to attack Tel Aviv, but are contained in the response of the British police and members of the Haganah , a paramilitary organization to defend the Jews.
The Arab Revolt (Al Thawra or intifada) in 1936 to 1939, the first phase
In the thirties, the rise of the Jewish sector in Palestine, however, increases the scale of the Arab nationalist movement led by members of the Husseini family in Jerusalem. In this period there, among the important figures in the life of the town you can mention politicians like Mayor Asim Saeed al-Bey , Omar al Baytar - President of the Muslim-Christian Association, Issa Al Issa Daud , and also who are very active in community life as Dr. Fouad Dajani, Adele Azar and Hassan Arafa.
In January 1932 in Jaffa meets the National Congress of Arab Youth adopting the platform Arabism inspired by that party's Istiklal (Independence Party). Activists of the training begin to patrol the coast to try to prevent the landing of illegal Jewish immigrants and to force traders to observe the political strikes. On March 20 1933 500 Arab notables from across the country gather in Jaffa to condemn the regime that allowed the British Mandate and Jewish immigration to blame fellow nationals who sold land to Jews. On 27 October 1933 a mass demonstration, unauthorized, Palestinian Arabs, is repressed by the forces of order agents. In the clashes among the 12 Arab demonstrators and a British policeman are killed. Badly wounded, the old nationalist leader Musa al-Husseini Qazem , aged 83, died after five months in March 1934. In April 1936 , taking courage from the failed policy of Great Britain and France to the efforts of German rearmament and expansionism in Italy, the Arab nationalist revolt trigger that ignites the whole Palestine, including Jaffa.
The Arabs declared a general strike and close the port of Jaffa for 175 days between April and October 1936. The 19 to 23 April there has been violence against Jews and their properties in Jaffa. A mass of peasants and workers from the region Hauran of Syria , agitated by rumors scare, kill nine Jews in Jaffa and injuring 60 others. Thousands of Jews from Jaffa flee and take refuge in Tel Aviv. Many stores and offices belonging to Jews or British left Jaffa. There are also anti-Arab retaliation of some individual Jews and Jewish underground organizations share - Haganah and Irgun B dissident group known as Etzel. On 7 August 1936 two medical assistants Jewish Hospital of Jaffa fell at the hands of rebels. They also ravage gardens and plantations of the Jews. On 7 September 1936 the British authorities proclaim martial law. Because during the night, the city with its narrow streets was under rebel control, the British detonate most of the Old city with aprox. 220 houses (the operation Anchor) Jews respond to the closure of the port of Jaffa to open an alternate port in Tel Aviv. In the wake of riots and general strike Jaffa is heavily affected in terms of economic
The second phase of the Arab Revolt
The partition plan for Palestine established in 1937 by the Peel Commission created by the UK government, recommended that Jaffa is the future part of an enclave controlled by Great Britain, like Jerusalem, Bethlehem and a corridor from by Ramleh and Lydda (Lod) to the sea Palestinian Arabs rejected this plan and trigger in September-October 1937 the second phase of their revolt against British rule and against the Zionist project in Palestine. The Mandatory authorities then put the Arab Higher Committee outside the law and some exiled leaders of Arab nationalists. The growth of Arab attacks against Jewish residents lead to retaliation - including anti-Arab attacks organized by the Jewish underground radical groups Etzel and Lehi (the "Stern Band"). On 26 August 1938 members of Etzel exploder make a bomb in the vegetable market in Jaffa, killing 24 Arabs and wounding 39 others. However, the violence escalates in hostilities within the Arab population, where bands of villagers began to ransack the citizens of Jaffa where they impose their "protection". In 1939 the Government Chamberlain waive the Peel plan and the proximity of the beginning of World War II sought to appease the Arabs, for example, by the end of the " White Book "of MacDonald's in May 1939 which will severely reduce the Jewish immigration to Palestine. This measure was taken after they had seen the predisposition of Arab opinion in favor of the Axis Powers in the hope of freedom from British rule and to end once and for all nucleated Feature National Jewish in the country. Indeed the Arab press Jaffa adopted an open line pro-German and pro-Italian especially in the early years of the war.
Resolution of the UN partition of 29 November 1947 and the intensification of hostilities between Arabs and Jews
In 1947 a new Special Commission, this time the UN recommends that Jaffa is part of a future Jewish state. However, the final plan for sharing the UN approved the November 29 1947 by the UN General Assembly, recommends the inclusion of Jaffa in the future Palestinian Arab state in the form of an enclave in the Jewish state. But, being in no way agree with the creation of a Jewish state that is the Arab side rejected the plan and 30 November 1947 the Arabs launched three attacks against Jews in many parts of the country.
In Jaffa a Jewish boy fell under the bullets. Number of Jews killed by Arab snipers firing from high buildings on the outskirts of the city, such as from the minaret of the Hassan Bek mosque. Portions of the commercial streets of Tel Aviv, Allenby Street, and Herzl Ha'Aliya become convenient targets for those snipers. The Jewish trade must move towards the north of the city. Volunteers to Iraq and Bosnia to join local Arabs over the towers of mosques and seized abandoned houses in strategic locations adjacent.
The firing from the area around Allenby Street Manshieh attract reactions from the Jewish fighters, mostly activists of Etzel and Lehi.
The people of Jaffa were divided - some supporters of the camp Mufti Hajj Amin al-Husseini , led here by the Chekh Hassan Salameh, while others sympathized with the more moderate camp. From the military point of view the Arabs of Jaffa were at a disadvantage because the access roads to the city were controlled by Jews who could block it and starve. So they did not benefit from a single military command or clear military objectives. Part of combat operations against the Jews of Tel Aviv were led by a National Committee of Arab supporters of the Al Husseini who was sitting in the administrative building of Serail at the center of the city. Residents of nearby Arab towns of Ramle and Lydda came to the aid of Jaffa fighters by blocking the road to Jerusalem. People from nearby villages Yazur (now the Israeli town Azor) and Salam (today district of Tel Aviv) started to turn to open fire into the Jewish neighborhoods of the poor south and east of Tel Aviv.
On 1 December 1947 the Arabs declared a general strike for three days. From that time until December 11 on the entire territory of Palestine fall killed in clashes and attacks mutual 130 people, including 70 Jews, 50 Arabs, three British soldiers and a policeman.
On 8 December 1947 , after several attacks and attacks against some 300 Arab fighters in Jaffa and Salame Chekh under the command of Hassan Salameh , a veteran in the pay of the Third Reich in Yugoslavia , enter the Hatikva Jewish suburb southeast of Tel Aviv and set fire to 32 houses. Two 1500 Jewish inhabitants fled. But, being too preoccupied with the bag, the people of Hassan Salameh did not translate their success into military advantage. The fighters of the Haganah were finally able to repel them.
On December 9 , mayors of Jaffa and Tel Aviv fall agreed to cease hostilities to save the harvest and export of citrus. but the cease-fire does not last long. On 13 December 1947 members of Etzel, originating in the Hatikva neighborhood and Kerem Hateymanim make a first foray in Jaffa.
On 4 January 1948 Lehi activists detonated a truck loaded with explosives near the Jaffa Serail, the seat of the mayor and the Arab National Committee, causing the collapse of the building and killed 26 Arabs. According to Arab sources, the victims were mostly innocent civilians, including children orphaned. Cet attentat contribua beaucoup abaisser le moral des habitants et des dfenseurs de Jaffa.
La fin de l'anne 1947 le quartier d'Abu Kabir et ses environs arabes comptaient 5 000 habitants. Tout d'un coup, aprs le 29 novembre 1947 , les Arabes d'Abu Kabir commencrent attaquer les moyens de transport juifs qui partaient pour Jrusalem et pour les mochavim du sud et forcrent le Juifs trouver des routes alternatives. Les quartiers juifs Shapira, Florentin et la rue Herzl de Tel Aviv n'ont pas cess d'tre cibles des snipers arabes.
En fvrier 1948 la dfense arabe de Jaffa comprenait principalement des membres de la dite Arme de libration arabe sous les ordres de l'Irakien Abdul Wahhab al Sheikh et ensuite du capitaine irakien Abdel Najjm ad Din et du chrtien local Michail al Issa. S'y ajoutaient environ 50 mujahiddun musulmans des anciennes units Waffen-SS de Bosnie sous la commande de Hajj Murad et quelques colonistes allemands.
L'exode de la population arabe. La conqute de Jaffa par les Juifs
Dans les premiers mois de l'an 1948 les habitants arabes de Jaffa ont abandonn graduellement la ville, surtout par voie de la mer, en esprant qu'ils pourraient retourner vite, dans un futur proche, aprs la victoire attendue des forces arabes unies. En avril 1948, comme rsultat de l'exode massif, le nombre des Arabes dans la localit trouve en blocade diminua environ 25 000. Le 1 er mars 1948 le commandement de la principale formation paramilitaire juive Hagana adopta le plan Daleth qui prvoyait le passage de la stratgie dfensive l'offensive dans le but d'arriver contrler jusqu'au 14 mai (fin du mandat britannique en Palestine) tout le territoire qui, selon la re dation of UN partition should go back to the future Jewish state. He also proposed to ensure territorial continuity necessary to protect the Jewish population - that by means of control of the enclaves and Arab towns in mixed Jewish and Arab population, and the occupation of positions - key terms strategic camps and police stations that would be evacuated by the British.
On 25 April 1948 six companies of the Irgun (Etzel) under the control of Amichai Paglin (Giddy said) launched the attack against the Arabs of Jaffa, in which they were bombarded for 72 hours in the city center. In the district bordering Manchieh occurred, however, heavy fighting for every house to its total conquest, the Jewish fighters arriving to reach the coast of the Sea Approximately 40 of them fell in battle, and some 80 were injured. The Arab inhabitants of the neighborhood fled south in the center of Jaffa. Order London, the British forces, supported by aircraft and warships shelled the area and turn the Irgun forced to withdraw from the Manchieh 28 April 1948. Before retiring, his fighters have blown up the police building.
Subsequently, in 20 - April 30 , in turn, the Haganah (18 units Alexandroni Brigade, Givati and Kiryat) launched an attack to occupy the Arab villages east of Jaffa (Operation hametz): Hirye, Sakiye, Salameh, and Tel Yazur ar Rish. All these events - the flight to Jaffa for a portion of the inhabitants of neighboring towns, the ransacking and abuse by members of the same Arab irregular militia, the conflict arises between men's Mufti Al Husseini and members of the 'Arab Liberation Army led by Najjm ad Din - have led to increased insecurity and consequently, the exodus by sea of people in the city. In the end, even the mayor of Jaffa, Youssef Heikal and then the last commander of the Arab Liberation Army was Jaffa, Michail Al Issa, fled the besieged city. According to the armistice between Etzel and the British forces, which is the Haganah took the positions of this organization in Jaffa. Jaffa surrendered to the Haganah on May 13 1948. Following the mass exodus of a population of 70 000-80 000 Arabs remained in place only 4100. The Jaffa today, part of Tel Aviv During the fighting the Arab-Israeli War of 1948 many of the houses of Jaffa were destroyed totally or partially. The ancient city abandoned by the inhabitants, remained in ruins. In one thousand nine hundred and forty-eight - one thousand nine hundred forty-nine the city came under Israeli military government regime, and then came under the direction of a civilian administration special called "Minhal Yaffo" as part of the mayor of Tel Aviv. In the years 1948 - 1949 and early fifties arrived in Israel massive waves of Jewish immigrants from Europe and the Arab and Islamic countries. Some of these immigrants were housed in abandoned Arab houses, others in public housing then called "chikounim", built in a rapid pace. Many Jewish immigrants, mainly from Bulgaria , but also other countries have settled in the new part of Jaffa, around the King George Boulevard, now named Sderot Yerushalaiym (Blv.de Jerusalem), where you can even up 'Today in restaurants or pubs in Bulgarian or Sephardic culinary profile of the Balkans , alongside those profile kosher , Arabic, Jewish Libyan , Moroccan or Tunisian , or Romanian. In the old part of town, all around the place now called Kedumim, settled Arabs in poor condition, many of them refugees from other Arab localities gutted, including the area of Ramle. This area of Jaffa, long neglected, has deteriorated, poverty and the low level of education of State accompanied by the growth of crime and consumption of drugs. That is why in 1970 with a view Jaffa, among the first, a polyclinic and a hospital unit designed to detox and treatment for addicts, Jews and Arabs. Tel Aviv Jaffa became independent in 1936. In 1950, conversely, it was annexed Jaffa in Tel Aviv this time as part of this city. In 1965 , after the open of the new port of Ashdod , the port of Jaffa was closed for the boats. To improve the condition of Jaffa and the lives of its inhabitants, was founded in 1960 the Society for the Development of the old city of Jaffa. In the work of rehabilitation and development in the city had enlisted several teams of architects. In the sixties the area was reconstructed from the old Jaffa, where they opened the workshops of painters and sculptors and art galleries. More recently it has re-zone part of the Place de l'Horloge. The two areas mentioned have become tourist attractions. In particular have a reputation in the Arab Jaffa Baking Aboulafia, and also restaurants hummus was near the port and in the area belonging to the family Kakhil Hajj. Jaffa has become over the years a center of cultural life and leisure intense: especially in the field of music-hall (producer and impresario Giora Goudik etc.) - in dining rooms as Alhambra, night clubs like Ariana, Caliph, Hammam and Moadon Hatheatron ("the Club Theatre). The name of Jaffa is linked to several top pop singers or songs Hebrew ("zemer ivri") and also the activity of Greek singers like Aris San, Trifon, Loukas Daraux, etc. and Israeli troops or local "kings of Bohemia "as the writer Dan Ben Amotz. From Jaffa also broadcasts its programming the popular radio station Galey IDF. The actor and director Niko Nitay, are based drama "Fringe" Ha'Simta "(" The Alley "). Were added, followed by other sets of alternative theater, for example Notzar Theatre, the Arab-Jewish Theatre, Theatre Movement Meyumana, auditorium etc. Anis. On one particular prestige enjoyed by the Repertory Theatre "Guechere (Gesher =" Bridge "), founded by Yevgueni Arye, a director of immigrant Moscow , and whose performances are played in Hebrew or Russian. In Jaffa take place at festivals such as "Du-et" - on co-habitation of Jews and Arabs, the festival of theatrical monologues "Theatronetto", the festival of music and dance "Jaffa Nights". Cultural life was enriched by the opening of a cafe-bookstore Arab "Yafa," became very popular in intellectual circles. Jaffa is also known as a center of sport Arabs and Jews. Here is one of the most important stages of the Israel-stage Blumfield. It was inaugurated in 1962 , on the place of the old field Bassa, and serves the football club Hapoel and Maccabi Tel Aviv In recent years, under the administration of Mayor Ron Huldai , we created a new administrative framework - the "Mishlama" for the rehabilitation of Jaffa. It has built a branch in the city of Tel Aviv University, a school of music which houses International Workshops opera and concerts of baroque music. In the Place de l'Horloge, next to the old Serail was made preparations to open a cultural center of Turkey , taking into account the role played by Turkey in the history of the city. At Jaffa there are also community centers, religious Muslims, Christians and Jews - Orthodox Judaism (including Hasidic and reformed ). After the Oslo Accords , was founded in the city's Institute Peres Peace and the Vatican has opened its embassy. The Arabs of Jaffa have been organized as early as 1967 in institutions such as the Islamic Charitable Trust and after 1973 the Islamic Charitable Association Al Maqassid (al Maqassid al Khayriyya al Islamiyya), led by Abdel Badawi Kaboub, and since 1979 as the association with secular nationalist platform Rabita (the League of Arab Jaffa). They fought a long battle with bureaucracy to govern the municipality and to maintain as a place of worship of Hassan Bek Mosque, a relic of the neighborhood Manchiye demolished. In 1981 at the initiative of the association Al Maqassid, to mark the Islamic New Year, we are held divine service for the first time since 1948, attended by the Mayor according to Tel Aviv, Shlomo Lahat (Tchitchi). The accidental collapse, the 18 April 1983 , the minaret of the mosque, has troubled many Arab audiences. The new Islamic council "Al Islamiya al Hay'a" inaugurated in 1988 by decision of the mayor of Tel Aviv, took over responsibility for the renovation of the building with the help of donors across the Islamic world. In 1994 Hassan Bek Mosque renovated, with a minaret twice as high as before, was reopened to the religious service. But autumn 2000 has witnessed the outbreak of the Second Intifada, the Palestinian Arabs in the territories controlled by Israel in the West Bank and Gaza Strip , with a wave of deadly attacks from "suicide bombers" against the Arab population of Israel throughout in the country between the years 2000 - 2004. At the beginning of these events in October 2000 , Israeli police has cracked down on violent protests by young Arab Galilee , killing 13 demonstrators. Later, after the explosion caused the June 1, 2001 by an Arab suicide bomber at the Dolphinarium nightclub on the coast of Tel Aviv in which 21 Jewish civilians were killed and 130 others were injured, were manifestations of Jewish protest in front of the Hassan Bek mosque, near the site of the attack. After these events, young Arabs of Jaffa, fanned by the local Islamist movement, dominated by the wing more "hardline" of "running north" of the movement expressed solidarity with their countrymen of Galilee, and respectively , the West Bank and Gaza, by violent demonstrations that led to the paralysis in the following years of domestic tourism and the foreign Jew in Jaffa. Slogans triggering violence in October 2000 referred to a fantasy setting fire to the Hassan Bek mosque by the Jews. After 2004 the situation in Jaffa has returned to normal. In 2005 the provocative action of some Jewish extremists who threw a pig's head attached to the name of the prophet, in the courtyard of the mosque, drew back the consternation in the ranks of Muslims already sensitized previously by agitators. Currently there are some tensions on the problem of building in Jaffa residential area for wealthy buyers ("gentrification"). These projects are likely to injure the rights of a number of Arab residents who are afraid of being discharged without adequate compensation. Recent years have occurred in Jaffa extensive pure development work from the beach and building a regional express train line which will connect the urban areas of Bat Yam , Tel Aviv-Jaffa , Ramat Gan and Petah Tikva. played in Hebrew and Arabic, Israeli-German production, tells five stories related to the Ajami neighborhood of Jaffa, the actors are Fouad Habash, Ibrahim Frege Scandar Copti Shahir Kabaha and Eran Naim. The film won the Golden Camera - Special Mention at Cannes in 2009, prices of Israeli cinema, Ophir for best feature film, the best rule, best screenplay and best music (Rabih Bukhari) also Sutherland Trophy at the London Film Festival. Jaffa is the center of many creations by artists as Israeli Nahum Gutman , Tzion Tadjer Eric Eliyahu Boukobza. 
Personalities
In fiction
The film, released in France on 10 June 2009 , is set in the city of Jaffa and its original title is Hebrew Kalat Hayam, which means the bride of the sea, one of the nicknames of the city. In art
Gallery
References
Sources
See also
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