John Ray
John Ray, born 29 November 1627 in the village of Black Notley , near Braintree in the Essex and died on 17 January 1705 , was a naturalist English, sometimes called the Until 1670, he signed John Wray. Unlike other naturalists of his time, he is not a doctor. He is interested not in plants for Pharmacology but for more scientific reasons. It is also the author of very important work in zoology. It is considered one of the founders of natural history today.
Summary |
Biography
Son of a blacksmith, he studied at the grammar school in Braintree. At sixteen, probably through some sort of scholarship granted by the vicar of Braintree, he studied in Cambridge to St Catharine's College. In 1645 , he transferred to Trinity College where his tutor was the Regius Professor of Greek, James Duport (1606-1679), one of his comrades is the future mathematician Isaac Barrow (1630-1677). It seems that the institution itself has further agreed that the first. In 1649 he was elected member (Fellow minor). It occupies a room that Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) occupied a few years later. He gives lectures on the Greek (from 1651), mathematics (1653) and humanities (1655). It is praelector (1657), Dean Junion (1657), steward of the school (1659 and 1660). Following the customs of the time, he can preach in the chapel of the school and to St Mary With St Michael the Great before entering the orders.
He acquired a solid knowledge of Latin, one of his biographers , Ray chose Latin for his books. This choice has undoubtedly led to the persistent misunderstanding of his work among the British and American scientists. Yet he is also interested in the English language and published in 1670 a collection of proverbs under the title Collection of Proverbs Franais.
John Ray was ordained priest on 23 December 1660. The quiet and studious Cambridge stops abruptly in 1662 , Ray then refusing to accede to the Act of Uniformity. He resigned the same year that the entry of Newton in Trinity College. He retired to his native village, he said himself, he is placed under the providence and good friends. One would think that his departure from Cambridge on his research led to abandon, if only because he finds himself isolated and without the benefit of the rich libraries of the university. But Ray has a rich personal library. , his friends, also must assist in his research and his books certainly provide.
It was during his years at Cambridge that John Ray meets Willughby Francis (1635-1672), entering as a member (fellow-commoner) at Trinity College. Soon the two men forged a strong friendship. In 1660 , they set out the nature of the Isle of Man. As William Derham (1657-1735), who met Ray at the end of his life, wrote:
"These two men, whereas the History of Nature too imperfect . "
This friendship is not only an opportunity for Ray to begin a fruitful collaboration, Willughby, easy and generous man, finance their travels together and offer to Ray until the end of his days, accommodation and a annuity of sixty pounds after the early death of Willughby, Ray engaged in the education of her two son, Francis (1668-1688) and Thomas (1672-1729). Ray will be grateful all his life and also wrote to sister Willughby:
Willughby died at only thirty-six. Historians of science have often attempted to measure the part of one or the other in the works that will be published after the death of Ray Willughby. It is undeniable, and Ray himself points out with great modesty , that the contribution of Willughby, quality and number of observations, is immense. The work of two men, it is impossible to disentangle accurately the part played by one or the other, is a fine example of friendship in science, which is not even interrupted by death.
A big trip to Europe
From 1663 to 1666 , Ray and Willughby traveling in Europe, sometimes along with other companions. They visited France , the Netherlands , the German , the Austrian , the Switzerland and Italy. They carry many observations on the flora and fauna as the face of many scholars. The journey is interrupted when the King of France issued an edict in 1666 which prohibits the presence of British on the floor of the kingdom. Both men bring a huge harvest of observations they begin to organize.
Ray meets, running in Montpellier in 1665 , Niels Stensen (1638-1686), author De Solido intra Solidum naturaliter Contento (published in 1669 and translated into English in 1671). It is in this treaty, following Robert Hooke (1635-1703), that Stensen establishes for the first time the true nature of fossils.
Six years later, Willughby dies. Four years later, Ray publishes the Ornithology behalf of his friend, followed in 1686 , his Historia piscium. It is considered even more than the Ornithology, more like the work of Ray as that of Willughby.
John Ray was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1667. Willughby and Ray are soon to appear in the memoirs of the Royal Society its first scientific publication, is dedicated to the sap flow in trees. John Wilkins (1614-1672), who had actively participated in the creation of the Royal Society , asked him to translate his book into Latin Real Character.
In 1673 , he married Margaret Oakley of Launton. In 1676 he moved to Sutton Coldfield , then in 1677 to Falborne Hall in Essex. Finally, in 1679, he moved to Black Notley, where he died.
Botany
His early work in botany
He became interested in plants while sick he should go for long walks in the countryside. He later said that the study of plants can be a hobby that allows you to contemplate what has been constantly under the eyes and that is stalled without thinking, to admire the beauty of plants and skilled craftsmanship Nature. First, the diversity of plants in spring, then the shape, color and structure of specific plants absorbed and fascinated me: the interest in botany became a passion .
In 1660 he published anonymously, flora around Cambridge, Catalogus stirpium circa Cantabrigiam nascentium where he exhibited his first comments following the organization's work Bauhin Gaspard (1560-1624), Catalogus plantarum sponte circa Basileam nascentium , published in 1622. It describes no fewer than 558 species around Cambridge that has examined all directly. Whenever he enters a new species, it provides information on a morphological description, its habitat , flowering and therapeutic indications. It follows the classification Bauhin Jean (1541-1613), brother of Gaspar Bauhin. The book was a huge success.
Thomas Johnson (1604/5-1644) and his friend John Goodyer (1592-1664) had envisaged from 1641 to achieve a British flora, but Johnson's death during the siege of Basing House concludes this project. Ray then began to pursue a similar project and achieve a flora of England. This project will find an end with the publication of his Iter plantarum ... of 1690.
After leaving Cambridge, Ray began a long journey to study botany who led the August 5, 1658 to September 18 of that year, to visit the area of Northampton , Warwick , Coventry , Derby , Buxton , Anglesey , Worcester , Gloucester , etc.. In 1670 he published Catalogus plantarum Angliae and insularum adjacentium first English flora.
Historia plantarum ...
Ray is considering the publication of a European flora and extended his travels to Europe. He started working on this new project in 1682 and published the first part in 1686 under the title Historia plantarum generalis first attempt at a world flora. Its publication ended in 1704 with the release of the third party. Ray adds to the European species plants which are sent by European explorers. The very large size of these volumes, the presence of illustrations does not explain, makes them difficult to handle, especially in the context of their consultation on the table of a naturalist. According Arber (1943) is probably one of the reasons that have to Institutiones rei herbariae of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1656-1708), small size and very handy, a reference book for botanists early eighteenth century , far more than the intrinsic qualities of the classification of John Ray. He describes in his Historia plantarum 6000 species and although most are not news, descriptions, brief and complete, are of great quality.
John Ray button twenty pounds for each of three volumes of Historia plantarum and twenty copies for free. Given the cost of manufacturing this item and standards of the time, it is a good pay.
Botanical classification
Ray tries first natural classification of plants and explains his method in three books: Methodus plantarum nova (1682), the first volume of Historia plantarum (1686) and Methodus emendata (1703). It separates the monocots and dicots markedly, probably inspired by Theophrastus , the gymnosperms and angiosperms. He also rejects the plants without flowers (like ferns ) of flowering plants.
Thanks to him, considerably richer vocabulary botanist. He was responsible for the term cotyledon or that of pollen. It also employs the vocabulary formed by Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) of Karl Sigismund Kunth (1788-1850) or Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712).
It also attempts to outline a classification of fungi.
Zoology
Ornithology
In 1676 , Ray publishes the Ornithologia Libri Tres de Willughby Francis , who died prematurely. This Latin version is followed by versions in English two years later. We consider the Ornithologia books as one of the founders of ornithology today. We do not know the part played by Ray in the preparation of this work, his friendship with Willughby, probably explains its discretion in this regard.
They travel together in Europe. The Netherlands , they observe colonies of herons and cormorants.
The book on marine species
To write the Historia piscium, Ray regularly attends the markets of London, and Rome during his stay in Italy. He is looking for rare and does not hesitate to ask the sailors of the oldest and most experienced.
Reptiles and other animals
It brings together, under the common title of quadrupeds , quadrupeds viviparous (ie mammals ) and quadrupeds oviparous (ie reptiles to four members).
John Ray discovers that a heart ventricle is distinctive among the reptiles vertebrates with lungs.
John Ray distinguishes among vertebrates, the holders of Quadrupeds hairs that are viviparous.
Insects
The comments are Ray publish well ahead of its time. He noted that the examination of larvae , the pupae and imagos are necessary for a correct classification of insects. The contribution of Willughy is undeniable on this part. Species of Lepidoptera Rhopalocera of 47 UK species perfectly recognizable, including six new to science. The book was left unfinished by John Ray without it had time to publish the section on moths.
The concept of species
In seventeenth and eighteenth century many zoologists and botanists have used the notions of genus and species but without giving them a rigorous basis, a situation which led to a proliferation of names for species described.
We generally attributed to Carl von Linne (1707-1778) the definition of these notions, but a careful examination of texts by John Ray, Linnaeus cites that many times, shows that Ray had described in formulations very similar to those of Linnaeus, who published some thirty years later. Linnaeus, however, the merit of having made the usage rules precisely (reformulate).
In his Historia plantarum, Ray says that plants can not transmit to their offspring characteristics acquired accidental. It specifies that individuals belonging to a species identical individuals to generate them. It also highlights the lack of fertile progeny from a cross between two individuals of different species.
It remains to integrate this vision of species, individual differences. Ray, they are only due to accidents or environmental constraints (such as climate, soil type or food). The diversity of appearance of domestic species, not preventing crossing, is further evidence in the eyes of Ray to the stability of species.
Ray believes that the number of species is fixed since the creation of the world and its many comments did not lead to a possible design changes.
Philosophy
John Ray released in 1691 The Wisdom of God Manifested In The Works of the Creation, which is published twenty-three times between 1691 and 1846 . The first edition was sold out in less than a year. The subject of this book is not really original, although other authors doing, like Ray, the adaptation of animals and plants to their environment proof of the wisdom and power of the Creator. Ray is interested in many topics as the influence of the moon on the tides , the shape of cells in the hive of bees , the movement of birds and fish, etc..
His text is used by William Paley (1743-1805) in his Natural Theology of 1802 and whose examples of adaptation will be used by Charles Darwin (1809-1882).
For for a believing man as John Ray, the Bible is considered a historical document literally true. Ray has great difficulty in reconciling the biblical account of the Deluge. Ray and advance the flood was caused by pressure on the seas of the groundwater. However, some designs geological Ray are far ahead of its time.
Ray knows Francis Bacon and the new science, a term he uses to describe the thought Cartesian Posterity of John Ray The Ray Society, founded in 1844 commemorates his name. The purpose of this society is to promote work in natural history. In the novel Lolita , the writer Vladimir Nabokov , entomologist enthusiast, including the Lepidoptera , has made one John Ray Junior Editor fictional confession of the main character . Posterity scientific
Literary Posterity
References
Sources
Bibliography
Ray is the official abbreviation Botanical
See the list of abbreviations of author or the list of plants assigned to the author by IPNI
Loading ...