History Of The Roman Catholic Church

The history of the Catholic Church can be hinged on a few pivotal moments in which changes how it intends to accomplish its mission: The Pentecost , the conversion of Constantine , the Gregorian reform , the conflict between Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair , the Council of Trent , and finally the pontificate of Leo XIII.

Summary 1 The first century Church of embryonic 1.1 The Primitive Catholic Church 1.1.1 Spin-offs from the Church in the Roman world 1.1.2 The early Christian communities 1.2 The ancient historians Christianity 2 The development of the Church until the Council of Nicaea (100-325) 2.1 The geographical growth of Christianity 2.2 Fathers of the Church, orthodoxy and heresy 2.3 The Christian Communities 2.4 Legalists and Martyrs 3 The Church of Constantine to Charlemagne (325-800) 3.1 Constantine and the tilt of the Roman Empire in Christianity 3.2 Structure of the Church 3.3 Councils, Arianism, donations ... 3.4 The Church and the Barbarians 3.5 Pope, bishops and monks 4 The hegemony of the Church in the West (800-1300) 4.1 The separation of the Churches of East and West 4.2 Cluny and the profusion of religious 4.3 Caesaropapism and affirmation of the papacy 4.4 Continuation and shortness of missionary effort 4.5 Poverty, heresies and universities 5 The disintegration of the Church in the West (1300-1545) 5.1 The emergence of the crisis 5.2 The crisis in the Church and the Papacy 5.3 The decline of the West 5.4 The Protestant Reformation 6 The post-Tridentine Church (1545-1878) 6.1 The Reformation 6.2 The Expansion of Christianity outside Europe 6.3 Evangelization, Christianization and the French Revolution 6.4 Statement of papal authority 6.5 seconds spring missions and spiritual life 7 The Church in the Modern World (1878-2008) 7.1 Leo XIII and openness to the world 7.2 Pius X and the rejection of modernism 7.3 The Catholic Church in the twentieth century 8 Sources of Article 9 Bibliography 10 See also 11 External links 12 Notes and references

/ / The Church of the embryonic first century

There are no known history of first century Christians as by the Acts of the Apostles and certain epistles of Paul , the texts produced by the first Christian communities. As a historian Stephen Trocm notes the shortcomings of this literature "which covers only a limited scope and is usable after a serious critique of its content is often distorted by bias and by the requirements of apologetics" .

The Catholic Church Primitive

Spin-offs from the Church in the Roman world

In the Old Testament , the Hebrew word which corresponds qahal "church" means the People of God gathered in the desert after the Exodus. In the New Testament , "church" means the new Israel. The Church is already represented on the day of Pentecost , around the year 30 , by a small group of men and women who claim to have known Jesus and claim to have witnessed his passion and his resurrection. In this group, the twelve apostles led by Peter a special role to fulfill the threefold mission of which they were invested not Christ: witness of the resurrection, aggregate, baptizing those who believe in their word and govern community. The first "Christians" were Jews who recognized Jesus the Messiah foretold by the prophets. In Palestine the first century, Christians face the hostility of the priests, jealous of their authority and Sadducees staunchly conservative . Soon two trends appear in the Christian community. On the one hand the "party of the Hebrew" gathered around Jacques , a cousin of Christ, remains committed to Jewish observances. On the other hand, a "party of the Hellenists" also composed of Jews, but who speak Greek demonstrated more detachment vis--vis the Jewish community. The use of Hebrew is influential in Jerusalem. The party of the Hellenists recruits both in Palestine and in the Diaspora. Its leading figures are Stephen and Barnabas. The Hellenists were expelled from Jerusalem around AD 37 , after the martyrdom of Stephen and, therefore, Christianity is spreading outside of Judea and Galilee , and first in Antioch .

It was only after twenty years the Church escapes the Jewish community and this new guidance is much to the influence of Paul of Tarsus , a Jew of the Diaspora , the Greek culture , in the wake of Pharisees. Paul, who had participated in the persecution of early Christians had been baptized after an apparition of Christ on the road to Damascus

The Acts of the Apostles describe in effect three successive persecution: the first has mainly affected the Hellenists. The third, which is surely the year 43 or 44. , leads to the martyrdom of Jacques, the brother of John the Evangelist, and the arrest of Peter.

In 49 , the sometimes violent debates that oppose Paul and Barnabas on the one hand and "characters from Judea" about relations with the pagans and the requirement that Gentile converts to be circumcised , and warrants and the existence of two communities, a " Judeo-Christian , "the other" pagan-Christian " . The Gentile Christians are also called "nice." In 49, a "council", gathered in Jerusalem ruled in favor of Paul: "The Holy Spirit and ourselves have decided not to impose further charges that they are indispensable: abstain from food sacrificed to idols, blood, flesh and suffocated illegitimate unions. You will do well to keep. " At this council, chief Apostle Peter also appeared as the leader of the young church, alongside Jacques also has a special status, that of "chief of the elders" .

Paul made many missionary journeys throughout the Mediterranean basin. They convert both Jewish and pagan. In 45, the first trip, in company with Barnabas, Paul led in Pamphylia and Laconia. In 50 , during a second trip with Luke , he founded communities at Philippi , Athens and Corinth. During his third journey began in 53 , he stopped three years at Ephesus.

In 64 , the persecution of Nero led to the killing of Pierre and the imprisonment of Paul, who died a martyr in 67. In 69 - 70 runs in Palestine a war of independence waged by the party of the Zealots that ends with the fall of Jerusalem. One can imagine as does Jean Danielou , as in the diaspora communities, the attitude of Paul, to separate the Christians from the Jews, was seen as a betrayal .

The early Christian communities

If the Acts of the Apostles reflect a development of the Church where the controversy and the settling of scores are not absent, they also convey the image of Christian communities which are practiced widely sharing and mutual support:

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The rite of initiation is baptism , which gives the gift of the Spirit and which originates from the baptism of penance for Jean-Baptiste . Baptism is given in the name of the Father, Son and Spirit and has a profession of faith. At dawn on Sunday after the vigil on Saturday night, Christians gather to celebrate the Eucharist .

Christian preaching is structured around three main elements. First, the testimony of the Apostles of the events they were eyewitnesses, where they were the custodians of the revelation : the passion, resurrection and ascension of Jesus. Then, the testimony of Jesus' family regarding the virginal conception and the Nativity. Finally, the memory which had been disciples of Christ's teaching. In addition, collections of texts of the Old Testament , to be exhibited in the realization of Christ prophecies are collected. After a period of oral tradition, the texts are written, which constitute the New Testament. The " Gospels "contain elements of life and teaching of Jesus. The oldest is that of Mark , which dates back 60, is the catechism of Peter in Rome while the Gospel of Matthew is addressed particularly to the Jews and that of Luke to the Greeks. The last gospel, the one ascribed to John is later and represents a very primitive original tradition.

For Catholics, it is Christ who initiated the hierarchical structure of the church by choosing the Apostles and giving Peter a special place. The recognition of certain characters who were not followers of Christ, Barnabas, Timothy and Titus marks the emergence of the episcopate with a genuine continuation in ministry, teaching, sanctification and government. If the twelve apostles were privileged to have been the only source of revelation, Paul is recognized as the equal of the twelve following a divine initiative.

Christianity ancient historians

Historians are only two pieces of pagan sources to cross-reference the New Testament texts: Around the year 120 , the historian Tacitus speaks of Christians persecuted by Nero after the Great Fire of Rome as followers of a hateful persecution . Pliny the Younger wrote to the Emperor Trajan asking for guidance on the attitude to adopt vis--vis Christians who refuse to invoke the gods, and offer the incense and wine to image of the emperor .

The historian draws from the New Testament exceptional information on the development of Christianity, particularly on personality and work of Paul, but it must establish boundaries between historical information and additions referred to apologetics that one or more authors have accumulated in what would eventually become the canonical text of a religion already structured. The infighting between party and party of the Hebrew Hellenists are familiar to connoisseurs of the history of Judaism from the same period . From the ^third century BC. AD, blooms all Jewish literature written in Greek apologetic purposes or to gain proselytes or passages of the Gospels and Epistles of Paul , evidence of the existence of a religion which consists of the texts are accepted as canonical texts is only necessary when there is evidence that these texts are published in the considered medium and this evidence is not before the middle of the ^second century , when Marcion Sinope later regarded as a heretic and excommunicated, list the canonical writings he believes, based probably on a group pre-existing letters of Paul .

Finally, over one hundred years after the alleged birth of Jesus in the early years of the century of Hadrian (117-138), as a historian Stephen Trocm sees in Christianity a sect marked by his zeal and his intellectual mediocrity, without doubt on the path to independence from Judaism, but whose numbers are still limited and not yet a power that counts in the Roman or Parthian .

The development of the Church until the Council of Nicaea (100-325)

The rise of Christianity Geographical

From early in the second quarter of the ^second century in the middle of ^the third century , what was but a sect or group of sects within Judaism turns into what is beginning to call a church , that is to say an institution weighing a certain weight in the social, political and cultural time . Still not located about 125 west of the Mediterranean basin, with a few islands like Rome , Christianity continues its penetration in the half century that followed. The Egypt is again affected, especially in Alexandria which is the regional metropolis. Africa is discussed, from Carthage. Progress is also important in some towns of Italy , to Spain and Narbonne .

Around 300, the center of gravity of Christianity is deported to the churches of the East, that is to say, those who settled in Egypt , in Syria and especially in Asia Minor. At that time, in the West, Christians are still only very small minorities. In Persia , from the ancient Christian communities of Mesopotamia , Christianity spread throughout the Sassanid empire. The history of Persian Christianity is not well known as those of the evangelization of Ethiopia , the Saudi and the India .

Christian peasants remain low, except in some regions where the Christian population was particularly dense, as in Anatolia or in Africa. The spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire is primarily an urban phenomenon that at first, slaves, craftsmen form the great mass, but gradually, the urban bourgeoisie and even senior management and the Imperial Court began to turn to the Christian faith.

Fathers of the Church, orthodoxy and heresy

There is no precise date when Christianity would be separate from Judaism. However, the end of the first century after the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 , was a period when Christianity moved away from Judaism. The disappearance of the office of high priest and Sanhedrin gives way to a school of scribes and a court located Jabneh. These institutions, dominated by the Pharisees , play an important role in the representation of Jews in the Roman Empire. The College of Jabneh Pharisees began to restructure Judaism as a religion and as a community. Rather drastic measures are taken against dissidents, sectarian and Christians. In return, the various currents within Christianity are changing that trend towards unification, first doctrine, then cultural and institutional.

The concept of catholicity appears. It seems that the first use of the term in Christianity dates back to Ignatius of Antioch :

"Wherever the bishop appears, there let the community, just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic church."

By structuring the outside of Judaism, Christians are led also to differentiate between them: first, the "Great Church", displays the image of the twelve apostles and Paul and demands of their tradition. The other, communities increasingly marginalized beyond orthodoxy emerging as the Judeo-Christian or Gnostic . Great Church recognizes the Old Testament as a collection of inspirational writings and defines a number of writings "canonical" that constitute the New Testament. The name "Gnostic" (from the Greek gnosis (), knowledge) apply to followers of different movements, not only Christians, who conveyed a belief system that humans are divine spirits trapped in a material world created by an imperfect spirit, the demiurge, frequently identified with the God of the Old Testament. In this movement, Marcion of Sinope , who was the first attended by canonical writings (the Gospel of Luke and ten Pauline epistles) and attending the Christian circles of Rome, was excommunicated by the bishop of Rome, Pius I at 144.

The first philosophical writings Christians are independent of these internal rivalries to Judaism or Christianity. This reverence of Christianity, written by Christians of Greek culture, pagan circles are for grown without much success it seems . The differences within Christianity stimulate the production of theological writings of the same intellectual level than that, high, some doctors Gnostic steeped in Jewish culture or Hellenist. Called Fathers of the Church those authors who have marked the tradition of the Church. Most of these early theologians of the Oriental as Irenaeus , who became bishop of Lyons in 177 , and by addressing heresies , thereby defining what is becoming the orthodoxy.

The Christian Communities

At the end of the ^first century, What appears the "monarchical episcopate" as it will continue in the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Some communities, particularly in Asia Minor, are structured around a hierarchy of three levels: the bishop , the guardian of doctrine and ecclesiastical discipline responsible for the presbyters that provide worship and deacons who are in charge of financial affairs and charitable purposes. Each community is soon to itself the name of the church and keeps more or less close contacts with neighboring churches, the bishops of a region can be written, shall consult, and occasionally meet in synods, provincial. The increase in the number of believers led to renounce domestic celebrations of the Eucharist and to seek broader gathering places, but must be discreet, as the catacombs of Rome. Sometimes, if the persecution is less threatening, the basilicas are specially constructed for this purpose.

Christians are urged not to stand out from the rest of the population, but of moral rules governing relations in communities. The problem of gender relations is an important feature in the lives of believers. The virginity is exemplified when the adultery is considered a very serious sin, and the remarriage of widows and widowers is strongly discouraged. Any participation in pagan worship was forbidden, including acts of civic duties as the cult of the emperor. The games of chance such as dice are also forbidden to Christians, as are theatrical performances and circus games .

Legal and Martyrs

Church leaders teach submission to any authority. Christians have a status even more precarious than that of the Jews, recognized as monotheistic , and delivered as such the official cult of the emperors. Christians are less well identified and their attitude arouses great suspicion, which sometimes turns into hostility, even violence. The level of persecution Christians are victims varies by location and time. Emperors Decius , between 249 and 251 and Diocletian between 284 and 305 , are the only ones who have consistently pursued a policy of repression, but throughout the first three centuries, the climate of persecution remains a sufficiently strong component of the environment to maintain the prospect of martyrdom in the horizon of the Christian life, and create a cult of martyrs.

From the ^second century , Tertullian , the father of the church particularly rigorous wrote "The blood of Christians is seed." In 249 , Emperor Decius requires all residents to participate in a prayer for the salvation of the Empire by means of a sacrifice to the gods. The edicts of Diocletian in 303 and 304 are similar: It is used at all to make libations and to sacrifice to idols. Besides the martyrs who gave their lives in these persecutions, Christians honor as the confessors who were imprisoned and have not renounced their faith. Many are able to obtain a certificate without participating in pagan worship. Many also are those who submit to such participation, they are the "lapsi. They are then excluded communities, which quickly raises the question of their mode of reinstatement. At Carthage, in 251, a synod of African bishops may decide that the return, but after penance. In Rome, Bishop Cornelius , recently elected, concurs with this position, but his competitor Novatian and causes the objects to one of the many schisms that dot the history of the Church

The Church of Constantine to Charlemagne (325-800)

Constantine and the tilt of the Roman Empire to Christianity

The conversion of Emperor Constantine , that is to say, the political leader he is, a supportive attitude to Christianity at the end of the year 312 , is an event of considerable importance with huge consequences. Before 312, it is estimated that five to ten percent of the population of the Roman Empire is Christian. Eighty years later, Christianity became the religion very large majority . Initially, nothing is changed theoretically the official religion of the State, the Emperor remains the pontiff supreme, except that Christians are no longer suspects that possessions and communities are guaranteed by law .

In the nineteenth ^century, a form of proximity between the Church and the power was called Caesaropapism. It was the contention of the emperor to be the head of the Church, to which the Eastern Church responds, in general, more favorably than the Western Church. In a more generalized it, for Jacques Le Goff, learning that established religion, from 325 to 476, Christianity has done in the Roman Empire, was decisive for the rest of its history . In the early ^fifth century, in City of God , Augustine takes this theory to temporal power and sets the task of helping to establish the Church here below the "City of God".

Structure of the Church

The Church of the ^fourth and ^fifth centuries had no other than that centralization gives the emperor. Locally, the bishops continue to play a major role. In each province, the bishop of the main city has precedence over his colleagues and some Eastern Churches, the oldest and most important, such as Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem and Constantinople are in patriarchates and extend their authority in several provinces. In the West, only the Church of Rome holds a similar role .

Only during the following centuries, until the ^seventh century that the primacy of the bishop of Rome is truly outstanding in the West. Until the ^seventh century also, the term applies to dad all the bishops, but the conscience of papal authority is revealed and affirmed in Rome from Damasus in the late ^fourth century. If the bishops of Rome had already claimed the estate of Pierre supported by the text of the Gospel, "I say unto thee, Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church" , during the first three centuries we do not see them claiming jurisdiction over other churches. Yves Congar notes that the Papacy that we see emerge occupy a privileged place in the vision that the Roman Catholic Church have, in their deep spiritual and religious feelings. It is up to them, with the order willed by Christ and his institution

Parallel to the division of imperial power between East and West, the churches of East and West set out their differences. The East is characterized by its multitude of monasteries , dogmatic controversies, and the West, through the use of Latin , the practice of celibacy for priests and, with Augustine of Hippo , guidance more "psychological" approach of religious thought.

Two opposite trends also characterize the Church's ^fourth and ^fifth century: on one hand increasing its temporal wealth, the other the development of monasticism. With the release of the underground riches of the Church become recognized and protected and they are quick to increase the play of his legacy as evidenced by properties in the late ^fifth century in Italy but also in entire Mediterranean basin. The bishop added to his duties as a director of property. The reverse movement is to escape not only wealth but also the world, rises in the east with the hermits and hermits. In the West, that is to say, Italy, Spain and Gaul, foundations are also being developed as those of Ligug or Lerins

Councils, Arianism, donations ...

From the time when Christianity became the official religion of the empire, the question of clarifying the boundaries between orthodoxy and heresy does not arise only in Christianity. The unity of the Empire depends on the unity of his Christian profession of faith. This ensures it by councils or councils of the Empire "ecumenical". Later, the emperor still Byzantine intervene in this area.

The First Ecumenical Council met in Nicea to Constantine's initiative to resolve the crisis of Arianism which questions the divinity of Jesus. The council adopts a symbol of faith which will be confirmed at the Council of Constantinople in 381. These quarrels Christological passionate especially the East. Of the 250 to 300 bishops present at the Council of Nicea, only four or five come from the West. The Bishop of Rome Sylvester sent two priests to represent him. . Faith is specified in a relatively sustainable, but in consideration of dissenting Christian churches split in a sustainable way, too, the Orthodox Church: a Church Nestorian in Persia, many Monophysite Churches, called Coptic Egypt, Jacobite Syria Armenians in Asia Minor .

In the West, is a regional council, that of Carthage condemns Donatism underlying the idea that the validity of baptism depended on the person who administered it. This is an opportunity for Augustine of Hippo to defend the unity of the Church and to perfect the doctrinal base on which develops the medieval Christianity. Augustine is committed also against Pelagianism , saying the absolute gratuity of salvation and the omnipotence of grace on the human will vitiated by original sin.

The Church and the Barbarians

During the first three centuries, Christianity was most prevalent in the urban middle and lower classes of the Roman Empire The New Testament conveys a message missionary : "Come on, of all nations and make disciples" . At the time of Constantine, the Gospel imperative of preaching to the nations has somewhat breathless. In the fifth ^century, with the Pope of Rome Celestine I , there has been missionary revival of the Church: In 431 , he sent the bishop Palladius evangelize Ireland . Later, in the ^sixth century, it was the turn of another pope of Rome, Gregory the Great , get involved in the process of missions, sometimes in collaboration of the episcopate Byzantine, far beyond the borders of the ancient Roman Empire, especially in the British Isles.

The Evangelization of the Goths had begun the ^fourth century under the impetus of the Arian bishop Wulfila , while the Goths were still in the marches of the empire. With the barbarian invasions, the western part of the ancient Roman Empire is under the domination of Arian rulers, which poses a new problem to the Church whose strategy is then to get conversions not win first collective heads often through Christian princesses already. Clovis is the first Germanic king to embrace Catholicism around the year 496. Previously Clovis was a pagan. That post an important event if we know the support that the grant to the Catholic Franks papacy in the eighth ^century. In the late sixth ^century, the conversion of Reccared king Visigothic Arian installed in Spain is another significant event

During the breakup of the Roman Empire, with the failure of imperial power, the Church had to rely on itself to maintain its unity. Defenders cited as Leo the Great in Rome, they maintain their cohesion, but serve as a fulcrum for the invaders Arians or pagans who let themselves be converted by the churchmen. The introduction to the Christian faith goes hand in hand with the introduction to the language and civilization . In return, Jacques Le Goff notes that the "barbarism" that is for the churches in the integration of national doubles as a barbarism of the actual content of religion and practice. Gregory of Tours , when he portrayed the world of cruelty and brutality ^of the sixth century, is also room for bad bishops and bad priests. Justice divine and earthly justice tend to merge into the same barbarity. " To justify himself, it uses more and more dual or the ordeal .

Pope, bishops and monks

Catholics call "popes" all the bishops of Rome from St. Peter. Until the ^eighth century, the whole church does not yet recognize him the first place. The Pope of Rome has power beyond the metropolitan areas Suburban , all over Italy. For the West, the papacy of Rome is a center for fellowship and an appellate court. To the East, that is to say, roughly, to the areas controlled by the Byzantine Empire , it is a recourse in case of conflict. Thus, during the Second Council of Nicaea convened by the Empress Irene , the pope of Rome Hadrian I plays an important role to convict the Iconoclasm. But since Justinian in the ^sixth century, Rome is under the control of Byzantium, and the election of a bishop is subject to the approval of the "emperor", the Byzantine emperor. In the ^mid-eighth century, the popes threatened by the Lombards and little confidence in the support of the emperor turned to the Franks and seek the alliance of Pepin the Short, who after defeating the Lombards is crowned king by the Pope Stephen II to whom he gave the duchy of Rome and the Exarchate of Ravenna. It was the birth of the Papal States .

That the bishops, that the Judgement of God will demand an account of the conduct of kings, the pope teaches Gelasius at the end ^of the fifth century. In fact, the bishops are powerful figures in the proximity of power. Their independence is guaranteed in part by the ecclesiastical properties experiencing considerable expansion, but this wealth is also a source of lust and interference power. In the words of Jean Danielou , the Church does not consider the city of man in his ordination to the city of God.

Christian spiritual tradition is formed and transmitted in multiple monasteries that saw the flowering since Benedict of Nursia founded an abbey at Monte Cassino and wrote the Rule of St. Benedict that will more or less as a model for monks than those of the West of the East. The intellectual vitality expressed in monasteries is also reflected by the impact that some religious have on their time: Cassiodorus Italy, Isidore of Seville in Spain and the Venerable Bede in England come from the monastic world. .

From the ^fifth century and fertility manifested missionary in Great Britain from the efforts of English Patrick in Ireland it is a form of primitive replica of eastern monasticism characterized by fierce resistance to the Roman model in terms of liturgy, but also in the institutional field, preferably with a monastic church in an Episcopal church. Asceticism is the virtuosity with repeated fasts, three Lents a year of rigorous mortification and prayer sessions endless

Christian civilization is forged at a rate of several regional councils that determine standards and guidelines under which customs and law of the barbarians, the original values of Christianity Celtic heritage of the Roman Empire combine to shape new forms of Christian civilization. In government as in the liturgy is Latin, which ensures the unity of the Church of the West Germanic countries included. The control of Latin becomes a criterion for discriminating between clergy and laity.

The hegemony of the Church in the West (800-1300)

Separation of the Churches of East and West

Since the origins of Christianity, the Churches of East and West differed in the same way that the East and West of the Roman Empire, one of Greek culture, the other of Latin culture. Both churches lived in communion, recognized in the eastern bishop of Rome, the Patriarch of the West. The sovereignty of the emperor of Byzantium exercised over Italy maintained the solidarity of the Bishop of Rome with the Eastern churches. In 800, the coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the West has a decisive blow to the union with the East . From the ^mid-eighth century when Rome came under the protection of a Frankish king, it occurs on nearly five centuries a gradual divergence between East and West formalized by mutual excommunication in the schism of 1054 and confirmed by the hardness of the Fourth Crusade in 1204.

The emergence of Islam that continues to erode and weaken the Eastern Empire while it may have stimulated the assertion of Carolingian power is a factor that also played in the gap between the two worlds. Still, the West came under the reforming of Charlemagne crowned "Emperor of the Romans" by Pope Leo III. For Westerners, this coronation restores the unity of the past between the Church and the Emperor. Indeed, resting on a solid doctrinal foundation, the reform policy of Charlemagne extends to religious instruction of the people, training and discipline of the clergy, the diocesan offices, or formulations of faith. The new emperor feels responsible for the progress and the defense of the Church of Christ and willingly consign the pope in his duties of worship and prayer. A climate of mistrust is established: Charlemagne's advisers claim to defend orthodoxy against Orientals. A council of the West met in Frankfurt in 794 in the presence of the legates of Pope condemns the councils held in the East in 754 and 787. No doubt the Pope Adrian I. refusing ratifying the Council of Frankfurt, but we see the feud start again in 867, Nicolas is then Pope of Rome, when the patriarch of Constantinople Photius gives the catalog of passionate dispute between the Greeks and Rome: Celibacy of priests are obliged to fast on Saturday, allowed to eat dairy products in the first week of Lent, Western doctrine on the procession of the Holy Spirit (the famous question of the Filioque ) . The Byzantine emperor Basil I sided with Rome. In 880, the quarrel is nearly extinct, but what remains and intensifies, it is the discrepancy between mentalities that have long, develop each in its own sphere .

The last years of the ^tenth century saw a resurgence of Byzantine power, while in the West are being put in place the conditions of the Gregorian reform with the strong assertion of Roman primacy. New blunders then lead to the irretrievable breakdown . Consciously or not, Westerners who have taken the initiative to break wanted to make it independent of the East Roman church they wanted to reform .

Cluny and the profusion of religious

^In the tenth century, the aftershocks of the collapse of the Carolingian are fatal to the Roman Church. The papacy fell into the hands of the aristocracy, then from 962, undergoes the tutelage of Ottonian emperors. However, at the same time, the "exemption" is granted to Odo, the second abbot of Cluny prepares the recovery of the papacy of the eleventh ^century. The Order of Cluny , founded in 910 and which will soon become flourishing depends on the pope directly . The case of Cluny is not isolated. In this period, many areas are donated to the papacy, as Vezelay. At the same time develops the spiritual movement and social peace of God through which the various Church officials are trying to achieve peace in the Western Christian world and master the use of violence in society.

At the end of the eleventh ^century, the order has 1,450 establishments and 10,000 monks. The liturgy dominates the life of Cluny. In the High Middle Ages , there were abbeys in western one or two priests to give the sacraments to their brethren, and before the first monks in the East were laymen. With the centrality given to Mass on Cluniac monk is often a "monk-priest." Not having enough time to work their huge estates, the Cluniac resort to auxiliary brothers lay , serfs or wage earners. If intellectual activity is limited, the magnitude of Cluny generates and disseminates new forms of Romanesque art.

Later, in the ^twelfth century, each monastery is at the head of wealthy estates. A new form of religious ideals, the Vita Apostolica emerges, combining the requirements of communal life, poverty, penance, intense spirituality, sometimes even traveling spirituality . We are witnessing a flowering of religious initiatives. The Cistercian Abbey and the Cistercian Order remains in the line of Cluny, but manual labor is given to honor. Bernard of Clairvaux , a founder of the order focuses on devotion to the Virgin Mary. Later, in the thirteenth ^century,Francis of Assisi founded the Order of Friars Minor around the ideal of evangelical poverty. In association with Francis, Clare founded an order of cloistered women, later called Poor Clares. Many lay people are third-order. At the end of the century, there are over 1500 houses Franciscan. More focused on preaching and study, Dominic de Guzman founded the Order of Preachers. By building a training structure, the order reached intellectual quality unmatched in the thirteenth ^century.Franciscans and Dominicans are among the mendicant orders. From the ^thirteenth century, among them that the Roman Church to recruit its most devoted servants, and they show you the best defenders of the papal court when their own existence, that depends, is threatened .

Caesaropapism and affirmation of the papacy

During the first eight centuries of Christian history, the bishops of Rome spoke of their rule throughout the Church. After the pontificates prestigious Leo the Great and Gregory the Great who established themselves as the successors of Peter and therefore the spiritual leaders of the universal Church, the papal authority declined when they fell under the authority of the emperors Byzantine. In the West, they have relied on counts barbarians but never the bishops of Rome would have acquired the strength and prestige they have been without the Carolingian princes Pepin the Short and Charlemagne. The papacy was so "westernized" for centuries: the Roman liturgy was adopted by all the Churches of Rome and the West becomes the largest city of the West. But in the tenth ^century, after the Carolingian decline and collapse, the papacy is subject to the Ottonian emperors, was the era of Caesaropapism

It was Pope Leo IX who begins to free the Church from the influence of the emperor from 1049 . In 1059, another step is taken: a decree of Pope Nicolas II , provides for the election of the pope by the principal ecclesiastical dignitaries of the city, priests or bishops called cardinals. From 1073, Pope Gregory VII will print to the Western Church a new direction by an uncompromising determination to assert the authority of the Roman See in virtually all areas, both the bishops as kings. "The Roman Pontiff, who alone deserves to be called universal, all power over the bishops, he has the option to file" writes Gregory VII . This new way of thinking about the realities of the Church in terms of powers rather than in terms of communion inaugurate a policy of centralization that will not be challenged before the Council of Vatican II in 1962 .

The Gregorian reform is the name given to all the changes sweeping the Church which then became regarded by all as an elective monarchy, universal and absolute, likened to the City of God on earth. The head of the universal church exercises over all its members a full power (plenitudo potestatis), it may file or reinstate bishops move, create, divide or bring together dioceses, abbeys erect, recognize the religious orders, call the Councils Ecumenical he chairs or is chair

For reform to be applied, Pope Gregory will oppose the Emperor Henry IV during a particularly acute conflict known as the Investiture Controversy and rebound with the control of the priesthood and the Empire which lasted until the ^{mid-thirteenth} century. Pope Callistus II ratify the nomination is spiritual, not subject to temporal rulers and the inauguration and he considers the "freedom of the Church" by the First Lateran Council .

the reorganization of the Church at the turn ^of the eleventh and ^twelfth centuries.

Continuation and shortness of missionary effort

From the time of Charlemagne , that is to say the late eighth ^century, the Christian world continues its expansion beyond the Germanic peoples to reach the north, the Scandinavians, and is the Slav. Under Charlemagne, with the wars against the Saxons, the expansion of Christianity is accomplished with an action determined to violence.

The process of Christianization of the Slavic peoples of Central Europe, Magyar and Slavic Kiev Region is somewhat similar to the Franks ⁱⁿ the fifth century in that it is initiated by a request from the princes. In well 829, an embassy of Sweden is presented in Worms and calls missionaries to merchants who wish to be baptized. In Norway, in the last years ^of the tenth century, the Viking leader Olaf was baptized in England. In Denmark, it was not until the ^tenth century to observe the expansion of Christianity and the coronation of the first bishop (948). At the root of the evangelization of Moravia by brothers Cyril and Methodius , there is also an application brought by the Prince Ratislav, in 862. Poland is the baptism of Duke Mieszko in 966, which triggers the conversion of the Poles . In Kiev, it was after the baptism of Grand Prince Vladimir the Kievians are baptized en masse in the Dnieper River .

The missionary work of Cyril and Methodius in Moravia is combined with the support of Rome and Constantinople, a Christian who, despite the tension that builds between the East and West, still has the sense to form a single body.

If the expansion of Christianity continued so irresistible in Europe, Middle East, North Africa and Spain to Christianity back from the ^seventh century at the expense of Islam. Where Islam expands, the Christian churches do not survive with difficulty, and North Africa, they disappear completely .

The capture of Jerusalem by the Turks in 1076 and the call of Pope Urban II , with all the authority available to the pope at that time opened the era of the Crusades. Christian crusaders return to Jerusalem in 1099 and resettle in the Holy Land for nearly two centuries. It does not benefit the Christian exacerbating divisions in the East. Why did Pope Urban II made his appeal at Clermont in 1095? For Jacques Le Goff, Urban II, a former Cluniac , inclined to preach the Truce of God , perhaps wanted to divert the Muslim violence of the knights, and at the same time satisfy the need of penance and satiation eschatological that pierces the time. The Crusade is the culmination of the tradition of pilgrimage . For Jean Danielou, created for the East and prolonged by military orders, the Crusade / A> is a typical institution of Christianity, it is the instrument of the reconquest of Spain to Islam, submission of the Albigensian heresy , expansion towards Prussia .

In the thirteenth ^century with the birth of the mendicant orders, we are witnessing a revival of the spirit of the Apostles and a Gospel burst. Franciscans and Dominicans constitute the two great missionary orders in the sixteenth ^century. It is without weapons that Francis and his friars will immerse themselves in Islam, Baghdad or North Africa. No further attempts, as the mission of William of Rubruck place to establish contacts with Asian steppe people before they should join Islam .

Poverty, heresies and universities

In the middle of the twelfth ^century, Western Christianity is faced with a phenomenon that concerns the whole Christendom: The urban growth and the birth of a new society based on division of labor, the distribution of monetary economics and the emergence of new social classes that represent craftsmen and laborers bourgeois among which stands the upper layer, the patricians. In this new social, church and Christianity will give a number of responses among which we can distinguish between poverty and casuistry. Casuistry is an intellectual response that develops in the universities. Poverty has been the source of the mendicant orders already mentioned, but it has also been the source of dissenting tendencies can not be assimilated by the Church.

The urban growth implies a rise in property wealth that encourages preachers to revive the image of an early church which held everything in common; clergy and laity invent experiments "apostolic life" that can lead to sustainable institutions. If the Gospel found freshness and virulence, laymen also come to oppose the Church. This is the case of the merchant Peter Waldo Lyon causing the movement of Vaud. The demand for authenticity on a lot of evangelical political dissatisfaction and social flourish are other heresies such as the Cathars which is implanted in the south of France and northern Italy. . This development is part of a university literary and theological renaissance. They are the scene of an explosion of ideas and schools that stimulate or sometimes conflict: the monastic schools and episcopal schools, search for God and human desire of knowledge, critical analysis and a symbolic reading of Scripture .

The universities are a melting pot of deepening the faith by corporate groups of teachers and students which foster the popes relative independence from local authorities. Institutional franchises are serving, but slowly, freedom of research. With Thomas Aquinas ceases when the teachers were frightened by any curiosity shown toward the philosophy of Aristotle. The great scholastic gathered around Thomas Aquinas claimed the ability of faith to assume harmoniously all the resources of human knowledge. Under the light of faith, reason not only rediscovered the natural structure of things, but sometimes the real substance of a political time. .

The breakup of the Church in the West (1300-1545)

The outbreak of the crisis

To discuss the situation of the medieval Christian West and the Church in the late ^thirteenth century, we can bring about a rapprochement between the scholastic and art Gothic which are from the same spirit, built by the same methods, follow the same approaches . Just as the Church is an ideal body, the church is an organized being material that expresses the spirit of community that is emerging in both the ecclesiastical institutions in the economic and social life . During the ^fourteenth and ^fifteenth centuries, the Church and the social unrest that will be assigned to lead the ^sixteenthRenaissance regarding the social body and, as regards the Church, the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Reformation.

The beautiful medieval building that seems to realize the Christian ideal of "seamless garment" begins to crack with the conflict between the French king Philippe le Bel to Pope Boniface VIII and festering in 1303, when envoy of the king does not hesitate to bully the pope. This is indeed a power struggle, whose causes are not new claims since the theocratic Boniface VIII does not go beyond what has been claimed his predecessors, and those of Philip the Fair 's Also included in the tradition of Charlemagne and Capetian who believe directly invested by God with a sacred mission.

Whatever the sequence of events between the first conflict, the establishment of the papacy in Avignon and the Great Western Schism , in other words, the coexistence of several popes between 1378 and 1418 which will cause a huge disorder in the Christian world, according to Yves Congar, the crisis will not come from secular powers, but from inside the church with the repetition of movements that develop with antihierarchical John Wycliff and Hus , complaints against the centralizing authoritarianism and taxation increased by papal Avignon Papacy , and ultimately theological equivocation between the tendency conciliarism dominant at the time of the Council of Constance in 1414-1418, and the Council of Basle in 1431-1449 and the trend if not monarchical hierarchical s imposes finally at Fifth Lateran Council in 1512-1517

The crisis of the Church and the Papacy

Philip the Fair then obtains the Council of Vienne , presided over by Clement V in 1311-1312 approved the condemnation of the Templars. At that time, because Rome was the scene of fierce fighting between rival noble families, the Guelphs supporters of the papacy and the Ghibellines , supporters of the emperor, Clement V prefers to settle in Avignon .

From 1309 to 1378, the Avignon papacy is characterized by a greater French influence, and besides, the popes of this period are from the south of France, but the centralized monarchy is the most marked character of the papal government during his exile in Avignon. Even if the good of the Church were the popes of Avignon is a serious reason to develop their governmental activity in the direction of centralization, this policy and the splendor that is established at the court of Avignon boosted spending Church to unprecedented levels. To cope, it becomes necessary to impose a tax based on the tax which shall discharge any holder of a position appointed by the pope. At the same time it strengthens the material resources of the papacy, centralization also raises rancor whose mass and force will not be long before .

In 1377, the pope's return to Rome merely heightened the partisan intrigues, and in 1378 Christendom was torn in two: the Great Western Schism. For forty years, the existence of at least two popes in Christendom divided according to criteria above all political: kings and princes give or take their allegiance to one or the other in their best national interests while those be recognized as saints attend one or the other: for Vincent Ferrer will be the one in Avignon, then it will be Rome for Catherine of Siena .

Sigismund was elected Holy Roman Emperor in 1410 will put all its weight into the balance to the Council of Constance which met in 1418-1419 found a solution to the crisis and be a success. Many doctors, particularly those of the University of Paris as Jean de Gerson are present alongside the bishops and abbots. The program attaches the assembly covers the major concerns of Christianity: The union, reform and defense of the faith . Basically, the union of the Church is found and the reform is in line with the ecclesiology that gives the council over the pope's supremacy. Eugenius restores much of the prestige of the papal authority to the Council of Florence in 1438-1445 . As for the defense of the faith, it is manifested by the condemnation of the anti-hierarchical. An Oxford theologian who died recently, John Wyclif had clearly challenged all layers of the hierarchical Church. Czech Jan Hus , who had propagated the ideas of Wyclif in Prague without necessarily sharing all, is condemned as a heretic , that is to say, burned at the stake.

The decline of the West

Since the ^tenth century, the flourishing economic and cultural development of Western Christianity was almost constant. From the course of the ^fourteenth century, the entire West enters a phase of regression which can be read through its demographics: between 1348 and 1420 Germany lost about 40% of its population, Provence 50% , and parts of Tuscany up to 70% . Several disasters have occurred: the Great Famine of 1315-1317, the Black Death, not to mention the Hundred Years War , the Hussite Wars and the Wars of the Roses.

These natural disasters or war in addition to political or religious events like the Great Schism or the madness of Charles VI , the tragic death of Charles the Bold and the growing Turkish threat to confuse the spirits and create a large collective anxiety. Individuals and society as a whole feel guilty, sin can only explain so much misery. Without doubt, "writes John Delumeau , Christians of the time they see a faithful image of themselves in the hideous, and grimacing as Hieronymus Bosch square around Christ of pain . In the last years of the fifteenth ^century, the belief spread that, since the Great Schism, no one is returned to Paradise. Many people also believe in all kinds of superstitions such as theft or diabolical sabbaths witches . The bubble Summit desiderantes of Innocent VIII encourage research and punishment of persons suspected of having engaged in Satan.

The Protestant Reformation

The theme of a necessary reform of the Church "in its head and its members" is the agenda for the Council of Vienne in 1311. Within religious orders, reform movements arouse spiritual directors as Jan van Ruysbroeck , preachers like Vincent Ferrer or Jean de Gerson , animators brotherhoods, among the people who maintain a more Christian prayer inside, which modern devotion shown by the Imitation of Christ strongly emphasizes individualism .

The principles of this "modern devotion" are that the asceticism necessary for anyone who plans to control his passions and devote himself to the good of others is fruitful as it is inspired by love of Christ. That every act of life is lived as an imitation of the Master, and little by little, Jesus will make his devout soul remains. the Imitation of Jesus Christ will, Bible excepted, the most widely read book in the Christian world .

In the sixteenth ^century, the success of the Protestant Reformation which is a fundamental questioning of the church shows that devotio moderna did not meet the expectations of some of Christendom. Inspired by biblical and secular, Protestant message is accomplished in two generations, that of Luther , which operates the break and the doctrine of John Calvin which organizes the reform .

This movement is an attempt to reform the religion Catholic. Many western Catholics were troubled by the fact they could see bad practices within the church, accompanied by the spread of false doctrines. One of the most famous examples involve the indulgences that will be challenged in principle and especially since they were the subject of trade to fill the coffers of the Church. Another source of scandal was the practice of the sale and purchase of ecclesiastical offices, the so-called simony , which was developing in the highest echelons of the Catholic hierarchy and even in the entourage of the Pope.

It is October 31, 1517 that Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the door of the Wittenberg castle chapel. This is a criticism of the Church and the Pope. The most controversial thesis are focused on the practice of selling indulgences and the Church's position on Purgatory. Among the spiritual leaders of Luther include John Wycliffe and Jan Hus. Soon, Luther is followed by more radical critics as Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin. Among the key beliefs and practices of the church challenged by the Protestant reformers include the Purgatorio , the particular decision , devotion to Mary , the doctrine of the intercession of the saints and devotion to them, most of the sacraments The celibacy of priests , including monks and authority of the pope.

The argument that the Reformers would have left the Church because it was a place of debauchery, dirt and various scandals is considered insufficient as a historian Jean Delumeau who states that at the time of Gregory VII and Saint Bernard , there were probably as much abuse in the church at the time of the Reformation, which suggests that the causes of the Reformation were deeper than the "disruption of canons or epicurean excesses of nuns of Poissy " . Delumeau for the abuses that matter most to heart are more Luther "communion under one kind, erected in the mass sacrifice, priestly celibacy, vows of religion, fasting and abstinence imposed on the faithful"

The most important groups from the Protestant Reformation are the Lutherans , the Calvinists , the Presbyterians and Baptists. In England, the reform process has different causes and effects that give rise to Anglicanism. The religious work of Henry VIII and Elizabeth is largely inspired by the desire to make church life to the interests of the state and it would probably not have survived if the English Church had not already taken the used to live independently .

The emergence of Protestantism, that is to say a great number of Christians who no longer recognize the authority of the Church, complicates the delicate game being played since Constantine between temporal power and spiritual power. The Holy Roman Empire is primarily concerned. The Call to the Christian Nobility of the German nation that Luther published in 1520 encouraged the country's elite to fight against Rome. The proposed religious independence Luther appears to the German princes as a complement to their independence vis--vis the emperor and the pope. In 1547, Charles V , Emperor, won a military victory in Mulberg against a coalition led by the Elector of Saxony, Luther's protector. But Charles V was defeated by the weapons states who gathered in the name of faith. The Peace of Augsburg signed between the Northern States and the first Ferdinand , successor of Charles V embodies the principle cujus regio, cujus religio, that is to say that a prince of the region must share the religion of the latter. The papacy must abandon its dream of unity and accept the reality of Protestantism . Latin countries, France, Austria, Poland and Hungary are in the bosom of Catholicism, but much of northern Europe and a majority of German states fail over the side of Protestantism.

The post-Tridentine Church (1545-1878)

The Reformation

The Roman Church knows the end of the ^sixteenth century and early ^seventeenth century a profound transformation that is now common to call the Catholic reform which focuses on the Council of Trent opened in 1545 by Pope Paul III , but which had been prepared by extensive research as the modern devotion and painful trial and error as the Hussite movement .

This internal reform of Catholicism is closely related to a process of regaining control and vis--vis Protestantism to the extent that we have called this period the reform-cons. The different movements of Protestant reform have aroused hostility of the Roman Church to Protestantism in a general context of cruel intolerance at a time when love and practice his religion often means fighting those of others . Most European wars of the ^sixteenth and ^seventeenth centuries are more or less of religious wars.

The Council of Trent itself, if it was "the vast melting pot is confirmed and perfected the purification of the Church also constitutes a refusal to dialogue with the Reformation and an affirmation of steep anti-Protestant positions . The Catholic reconquest eventually passes not the way of arms. The War of the Eighty Years' conducted in the Netherlands by Spain between 1568 and 1648 virtually destroyed Protestantism in the territories held under the control of the kings of Spain, among which the future Belgium . In Bohemia , which remains dependent on the Austrian Catholic, the Battle of White Mountain in 1620 , marks the end of the Hussite movement and opens the way for the eradication of all forms of Protestantism .

The Council of Trent held a number of doctrinal development as a reaffirmation of the existence of original sin and adherence to all seven sacraments . At no time in the history of the Church, a council had taken a program as total doctrinal and pastoral, but "it apparaise miraculous," he would have remained useless if the spirit of reform had enabled to his guns and decrees to pass into the life of the Church. This desire for reform is growing in all countries and manifests itself at all levels of the Catholic hierarchy .

First, pastoral developed an arsenal: two years after the council closing out the Catechism of Trent , written by Charles Borromeo , whose council had requested the drafting of 1546. Breviary and Missal Roman found respectively in 1568 and 1570. The revisited version of the Vulgate , that is to say, the translation of the Bible in Latin, was founded in 1593 .

Then we see a strengthening of the various levels of the hierarchy: first, the authority that constitutes a counterweight to the tendency Caesaropapism latent Catholic sovereigns. Between 1564 and 1572 , hundreds of synods regional stand to raise the spirit of the council in everyday life . The homecoming prompted by the humanism of the Renaissance directs the mind towards a more rigorous design of the episcopate. It is well, especially after 1640 a bishopric of high spiritual value. The ^seventeenth century marks a watershed in the history of the episcopate, that of the bishop-lord to the bishop-religious leader .

One of the most important decisions the Council of Trent concerning the creation of seminars that are a driving force in raising the moral and intellectual level of the parish clergy who remains very slow. In France , it was not until 1650 that we see truly develop the seminaries where future priests are still two years and receive a true priestly formation. The clergy, now better trained, is also better controlled by the bishops who stick to spend part of their time to make pastoral visits throughout their dioceses .

Before the seminar will produce a massively enhanced level clergy, that is to say roughly in the middle of the ^seventeenth century , the Catholic renaissance is the result of the activism of new religious orders or renovated. Among the new orders, the Society of Jesus founded by Ignatius of Loyola , occupies a prominent place. Confessors of princes of Europe and astronomers of the emperors of China as Matteo Ricci , missionaries and outstanding teachers, the Jesuits between 1550 and 1650 constitute the most dynamic element of the Roman Church. The Jesuits are widely involved in the new Catholic missions like the Capuchins , another new family order Franciscan. Dressed in sackcloth coarse, and bound themselves to fasting frequent and rigorous, they develop a different form of spirituality but none the less a profound impression on men of the ^sixteenth and ^seventeenth centuries .

If the Council of Trent guides the Church on a path of internal reform, the theological debate that led to the Protestant split is not extinguished within the Church Fathers of the council said the free arbitrator and the necessity of grace , but without defining their relationship and the existence of a genuine free will is inconsistent with some theories of St. Augustine who said "It's a fair trial from God that grace is not given to those whom God rejects. This contradiction makes it inevitable that the outbreak of the movement Jansenist who deny the doctrine more or less official claiming Augustine .

Expansion of Christianity outside Europe

The Society of Jesus is typical of this spirit of organization that appears in Christian history and that of the apostolate which is for John Delumeau an enrichment of the mental tools of Western man in the early time Modern . After the great discoveries of the ^fifteenth and ^sixteenth centuries the world is changing in size, more culturally and geographically, the evolution of post-Tridentine Church (after the Council of Trent) is based on a dual voltage concern: if, relative to Protestantism, maintain, defend or regain the positions he is also on the entire surface of the earth, to lead men to salvation through faith in Jesus Christ and the sacraments of the Church .

The effectiveness and the spirit of Christian method applies to the expansion of the Church outside Europe. A religious conquest comparable to that of apostolic times again, not on the scale of an empire, but to that of the planet. At the same time as the actual earnings of overseas far outweigh the losses caused by the Protestant secession, Central Europe and Ottoman, the battles of Lepanto in 1571 and the Kahlenberg in 1683 marked the beginning of the inexorable ebb Ottoman .

The so-called great discoveries will be an opportunity for a new phase of the expansion of Christianity in the lands that came under the domination of these two powers that have become major Marine Portugal and Spain. More broadly, this missionary zeal extends into every country that advances now make navigation accessible to European navigators. In 1508, the Bull Universalis Ecclesiae , Spain obtained the monopoly of the missions in the area that had been assigned by the Treaty of Tordesillas. In 1514, a symmetrical status is granted to the Portuguese. It is actually an adjustment because they had already secured the middle of the fifteenth, exclusivity missionary in the world, back when they were the only maritime power. The Holy See has neither the financial means to own or missionary centralized structure, subcontracts and the organization of missions to the Catholic sovereigns: the arrangement of Trustees .

The missionary presence is part of the conquest of Central and South America and the Philippines: the Spaniards do not see the establishment of a Spanish government without including clerical institutions. Fully integrated with the Spanish conquest of new territories, some missionaries like Bartolom de Las Casas also play a role as a counterweight vis--vis the civil administration and military defense of the Indians are victims of theft and oppression .

In Asia, many missionaries working under the authority of the king of Portugal are Portuguese like Francis Xavier , Jesuit Navarre which will then be declared "the patron saint of missions," which preaches and baptizes in India about 1542 and Japan around 1549. Despite the linguistic prowess of the Jesuit missionaries, the expansion of Catholicism in Asia remains modest. In 1800, in Asia with hundreds of millions of men, Christians are only a few million .

p> This system consists of employers to the papacy many advantages, including that of being able to completely discharge the temporal powers, but it is hardly sustainable in the long term because of the constant interference by secular authorities in religious affairs. After the Council of Trent which handles much of the evangelization of the Gentiles , the church government has every reason to want to resume its natural prerogatives. In 1622, the bubble Incrustabili , Pope Gregory XV established a centralized body known as Congregation de Propaganda Fide. In order to make the missions less dependent Portugal, Spain, the Holy See promotes the creation of the Foreign Missions of Paris , with the specific objective of training local clergy ^{Evangelization, Christianization and the French Revolution}

Main article: Christianization (French Revolution).

The Church posttridentine (that is to say, after the Council of Trent) is characterized by his determination to "Christianize" a society that had been only imperfectly in the Middle Ages . This effort to Christianity through the struggle against the pagan mentality, leadership of the faithful with a well-trained clergy, but also by the methodical implementation of missions, not intended for distant lands, but the campaigns of European countries. These ^{seventeenth-century} missionaries arrived in a parish in groups of four to eight, and not let go the villagers before the entire world will be confessed. During the few weeks of their stay, they will crowd tried to teach the four basic prayers, Pater , Ave Maria , Credo and Confiteor and organize some spectacular events .

On the eve of the French Revolution , 95% of the rural population are French Easter communicants , that is to say they go to Mass at least the day of the feast of Easter , but in this seemingly monotonous landscape religious conformity, the mission reports of Vincentians covering the period from 1683 to 1714 in the region of Montauban, show areas of failure, and two centuries later, these same regions exhibit the same characteristics of a weak practice Religious .

The phenomenon of de-Christianization of mass sensitive in France since 1750 has often been an abandonment of conformity, that is to say elements of the Christian attitude to have more to do with custom and coercion with faith. Since the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, while faithful arrived at the age of discernment is required to receive communion at least once a year in his parish church, on pain of excommunication and after death, deprived of Christian burial. In the eighteenth ^century, there is the attempt, for example through the pastoral visits of bishops to exercise closer supervision over the religious practice of the faithful, but in practice, sanctions are rare and the state intervenes only intermittently to ensure compliance on Sunday .

It is commonplace to note the contrast between the warmth of the ^eighteenth century religious and Christian fervor of the seventeenth ^century marked by great mystics like John of the Cross or Teresa of Avila. In fact, the current challenge libertine has existed since the early seventeenth ^century. The questioning of Christianity does not happen only in France but also in Italy and England. It interacts with pantheism and rationalism positive Spinoza .

The ^eighteenth century directed against religion in general, but especially against Christianity, a series of converging attacks, more or less virulent than can be illustrated by the Historical and Critical Dictionary of Bayle, in 1697, the Philosophical Dictionary Voltaire in 1764. Voltaire is waging a war front as well as cons cons Christ Church with the famous slogan "Crush the infamous". It is causing a anticlericalism which will remain until the ^twentieth century, a component of the Western bourgeoisie. He accuses the Church of enclosing the belief in a series of inconsistent stories, lead to a theocracy beneficial to priests, in short, to dedicate a foreign company because .

If Voltaire's ideas are indisputably anti-Christian, those of the Enlightenment in general, are integrated within some Catholic mobilities as Josephism in Austria, where the enlightened despot Joseph II considers that the Church of Austria should also benefit from the rationalism and ideas of progress, under the leadership of the state than under that of Rome. In France, the same ideas feed the Gallicanism who does not enjoy the support of a sovereign and must await the 1789 revolution to flourish.

The French Revolution which will be a trauma for the Church is not originally a plot against the faith . But it is in a position of weakness and fatigue that the Church deals with this event. Eight successive popes from 1700 to 1800, only Benedict XIV spell of mediocrity. In Rome, the time for socializing is back . Dwindling populations in the monasteries. The infighting is another cause of the weakening of the Church under the combined pressure of Franciscans and Dominicans , but also because of the jealousy of the secular clergy and the Catholic suspicion of the various states who fear their occult power, In 1773, Clement XIV scrapped the Jesuits , the order is pronounced a vow of special obedience to the Pope .

The French Revolution is a milestone in the history of the Church, not only because of the defection from the Protestant countries and the decline of Spain, France the country is Catholic excellence, but also because by conquest The French Revolution exported to a part of Europe. Whatever the success of the anticlerical Voltaire, the first architects of the Revolution did not dream to prepare the nation against the Church, but to bring them closer. The mobilities Gallican and Jansenist French clergy are comfortable in the revolutionary patriotism, and reform the voting system of the States General is a landslide for the lower clergy and priests of the world produced by the Catholic reform .

Proof of membership of elected clergy to revolutionary ideals, on the night of 4 August 1789, the church abandon their rights and revenue to the nation. The Church thus finds itself deprived of resources, which justifies a few months later secularisation - it looks today nationalization - of church property, secularization extended in February 1790, at the orders and congregations, resulting in the closure convents of contemplative and suppression of monastic vows. These changes are made in the midst of a nearly unanimous indifference, bishops and priests not seeing the disappearance of displeasure without annoying rivals envied for their wealth .

The final break between the Revolution and the Church appears in the summer of 1790 when the Civil Constitution of clergy , the result of a Gallicanism extreme involves breaking with Rome is the "sworn priests" who are willing to swear allegiance to the constitution. A result of this conflict situation between the revolutionary power and "refractory priests" loyal to Rome, which is exacerbated from the Commune of Paris in August 1792 he became not wear ecclesiastical dress, churches were closed or destroyed. This policy of de-Christianization had no negative effects for the Church since the test appears to have strengthened the faith of Christian people who want more priests, pushing to restore the worship of Bonaparte and normal relations with the Holy See by through the Concordat of 1801 .

Affirmation of papal authority

The Concordat of 1801 , following lengthy negotiations, is a subtle combination between the traditional Gallican , the clergy and civil constitution of the new spirit that manifests itself with the coming to power of Napoleon. Temporal power is vested the appointment of bishops and the pope their institution canonical. The Holy See waives the church property sold for the benefit of the nation, but the government agrees to pay the clergy a "proper treatment" . In the ^nineteenth and ^twentieth centuries, a series of compositions will be signed, including the time of Pius XI , after the First World War with the newly created European states. These compositions are very different from those signed under the old regime: these compositions provide the national churches of their private income, independence vis--vis the States guaranteed by Rome . The formalization of the loss of his property to the Church represents a milestone in the separation of spiritual and temporal. After ten years of revolutionary turmoil, the authority of the pope grown out, which does not mean that the de-Christianization has been resolved: the islets of irreligion remain in traditionally Catholic countries .

The nineteenth ^century will be both time temporal decline of the papacy and that of his moral ascent. The achievement of political unity in Italy through the liquidation of the papal states and their integration into the new Italy. This will be done in 1870, which will be accepted by the papacy in 1929 with the signing of the Lateran Treaty .

The Ultramontanism is a current of thought in favor of the rule, judicial and spiritual, the pope on political power, which developed from the sixteenth ^century thanks to the consolidation of power that resulted from the Pontifical Council of Trent in opposition to the Gallicanism . In the nineteenth ^century a popular impulse enhances the prestige of a pope to which the faithful are attached more fervent. The resulting vigorous ultramontanism takes the opposite of the French Revolution. More generally, throughout Europe, it takes a distinctly anti-modernist .

According to the argument of philosophers traditionalists, only a uniform and centralized Catholicism would be able to oppose the process of disintegration of the modern world. "Christianity is based entirely on the Sovereign Pontiff" . Anglicans like John Henry Newman are in the authority of the church the only way to preserve the truth jeopardized by the dissolving effect of human reason. With its enhanced authority, Pope Pius IX proclaimed in 1854 the dogma of the Immaculate Conception that Mary was preserved from original sin. Since the Pope has the privilege to interpret the tradition and set itself an article of faith not explicitly contained in the Scriptures , he will push to its logical conclusion: Assembled by the same Pius IX in December 1869, I. Vatican Council proclaimed the Papal Infallibility .

The triumph of ultramontanism is not incompatible with the outside world. Instead, a strong Roman Church is the natural ally of the nations that are oppressed Catholic Poland and Ireland. The end of the Napoleonic Empire and the Restoration lead Lamennais and his followers advocate the separation of church and monarchy, freedom of thought for Catholicism and the expansion of religion in social institutions and activities men. Pope Pius IX seems to be in favor of liberal Catholicism , but may be traumatized by the revolutionary events of 1848 when a republic was proclaimed in Rome, he ended by condemning all errors with modern syllabus establishes a specific list .

Second Spring missions and spiritual life

Main article: Catholic Missions in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

After a decline in the Enlightenment, hostile in principle to the evangelization of unbelievers, known missionary work in the nineteenth ^century a "second spring missions" . The new wave of missionary born in France before spreading to neighboring Catholic countries . If one side of the missionary impulse of the spring wave of European expansion which will be expressed also by colonialism, it is fair to say that the missions are rather advanced phase with respect to settlement and they survive Decolonization . It partakes of spiritual renewal came after the Revolution. Some ideas of 1789, as those of equality between men and races in Europe that inspired the awakening of nationalities, also fertilize this "missionary romance" that owes much to the Spirit of Christianity published in 1802 .

As a missionary movement appeared simultaneously among Protestants , the rivalry between Catholics and Protestants is a characteristic of the period. Oceania and Africa will be the land of missions specially concerned, but the Christianization of a country like Korea, remained outside the process of European colonization is also in this period. The missionaries of the nineteenth ^century belonged mostly to new religious orders , specialized in the missionary apostolate. In 1845, Gregory XVI publishes encyclical neminem Profecto which requires apostolic vicars to carry the bulk of their training on the local clergy .

The missionary impulse of the nineteenth ^century is one manifestation of the confidence that Catholics find themselves and which also expressed a strong commitment in the person of the Roman pontiff. This wave of emotion reached its peak during the pontificate of Pius IX that is the subject of genuine devotion and then Rome shines more brightly in the ^eighteenth century when the cosmopolitan crowd flocked to St. Peter to attend the solemn canonization or to receive the blessing of Pope . The spirituality of the ^nineteenth century, full of emotion and romance, mark those whom the Church recognizes as saints first and foremost it is worth mentioning Therese of Lisieux that intimately unites in his person the contemplation and missionary spirit .

The Church in the Contemporary World (1878-2008)

Leo XIII and openness to the world

Leo XIII

Leo XIII, who succeeded Pius IX in 1878 will initially show as uncompromising as his predecessor, whether the refusal of the annexation of the Papal States by Italy or her vision of modern society that leads to in turn denounce the evils of liberalism, socialism and Freemasonry. His pontificate marks nevertheless a certain change of attitude vis--vis a world where, whatever the progress of the missions, the Church appears in decline in Europe, where governments anticlerical needed in the traditionally Catholic countries like Italy, France, Spain or Portugal. Science which opposes the dogma that sometimes the bed of unbelief and the urban proletariat develops outside of the Church .

Acceptance of the modern world is reflected first in 1891 with the publication of the encyclical Rerum Novarum which will be the foundation of the social doctrine of the Church and taking into account the movement that developed in Germany around Archbishop of Mainz Bishop von Ketteler who sought a cure for the misery of working in corporate-type solutions based on religious values and refusing both liberalism that statism. The social Catholicism means that this trend will hold in other countries, Christians involved in politics and it must follow in part the Christian Democrats. The solution to poverty workers will be sought not in the clash of classes, but an obligation for the employer to place the worker in humane conditions of work and the rewarding of a fair wage. Trade associations that may be unions are recommended for workers .

At the same time, the council gave the French Catholics to rally to the republic is a new manifestation of the failure that now exists in relation to the spirit of the Syllabus .

Pius X and the rejection of modernism

Pius X

A phenomenon common in the balance of church history at the conciliatory attitude vis--vis the world that characterized the papacy of Leo XIII opposed to his successor Pius X stiffness and intransigence manifested first by the refusal of the formula for Separation of Church and State in 1905 passed by the French legislature and which terminates at the concordat of 1801 , which maintained close relations between state and religion officielle qu'tait le catholicisme. Diplomatic relations with France will be restored after the First World War.

In 1906 was published Catechism of Pius X , who retained the traditional distinction between the Church Militant, the Church Triumphant and the Church Suffering .

In 1907, by Decree Lamentabili Sane Exitu Pius X condemned modernism as "the hub of all heresies." Modernism speaks Pius X denotes a phenomenon internal to Catholicism: it is not the excesses of modernity, but only those that Catholics are trying to acclimate to their church. These excesses were first published cultural, dictated by the desire of a more enlightened than Catholicism teaching scholastic . Long indeed, many enlightened believers, Catholics and Protestants felt that the Bible, divine inspiration, remained in his expression of "cultural and language of his native environment. It appeared to Pius X as the progress of this new science that is the exegesis could call into question the foundations of the book's most sacred . It was not until 1962 and the constitution Dei Verbum of the council after Vatican II that the freedom to work is made to Catholic exegetes.

The Catholic Church in the twentieth ^century

Main article: History of the Catholic Church in the twentieth century.

Article Sources

In its form 12 May 2008, this article is adapted from the article History of the Church of WikiKto GFDL.

Bibliography

Literature quoted by Jean Danielou

• L. Bouyer, J. Leclerq et al. History of Christian Spirituality, 5 vols., Paris, 1960-1968
• C. Bihlmeyer and R. Tuchler, Church History (Kirchengeschichte), 4 vols. Salvator, Mulhouse, 1962-1967
• H. and O. Chadwick, Oxford History of the Christian Church, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1981 ff.
• John Chelini and A.-M. Henry, The Long March of the Church, Bordas, Paris, 1981
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• F. Christopher, Church in the history of mankind, 2 vols., Droguet-Ardant, Limoges, 1982
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• Two Thousand Years of Christianity, 10 vol. Soc. d'hist. Christian Paris, 1975-1976
• A. Fliche and V. Martin, History of the Church from the beginning until today, 24 vol., Paris, 1935-1964
• J. Grootaers De Vatican II to John Paul II. The watershed of the Catholic Church, The Centurion, Paris, 1981
• H. Jedin 'Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte, 9 vols., Herder, Freiburg-Basel, 1963-1975
• Gabriel Le Bras and J. Gaudemet, History of Law and Institutions of the Church in the West, 12 vols., Sirey, Paris, 1955-1985
• Jacques Le Goff and Ren Rmond , religious history of France, 4 vols. Seuil, Paris, 1988 sqq.
• E. Lesne, History of the Church property in France, 6 vols., Lille, 1910-1943
• J. Loew and M. Meslin, Church History, told by herself, Fayard, Paris, 1978
• L. Lopetegui and F. Zubillaga, Historia de la Iglesia in the Amrica espaola, 2 vols., BAC, Madrid, 1965-1966
• J.-M. Mayeur and C. Pietri et al. History of Christianity from its origins to today, 14 vol. planned Descle-Fayard, Paris, 1990 sqq.
• E. Moreau, History of the Church in Belgium, 7 vols., Brussels, 1940-1952
• L. Pastor, History of the Popes (Geschichte der Papst seit Ausgang des Mittelalters), 22 vol. published in Paris, 1907-1962
• P. Pierrard, History of the Catholic Church, 3rd ed. Descle, Paris, 1991
• WM Plchl 'Kirchenrecht Geschichte, 4 vols., Herold, Vienna, 1960-1966
• Emile Poulat , A Church shaken. Change, conflict and continuity of Pius XII to John Paul II, Casterman, Paris, 1980
• LJ Rogier, R. Aubert and D. Knowles, New Church History, 5 vols. Seuil, 1963-1975
• Rene Francois Rohrbacher, Universal History of the Catholic Church, ed. Gaume Frres, 1857-1861, 29 vol. Online
• M. Schmauss and A. Grillmeier, History of Dogma (Handbuch der Dogmengeschichte), 26 vol., Cerf, Paris, 1966 sqq.
• G. Villoslada, Historia de la Iglesia en Espaa, 6 vols., Madrid, 1979 sqq.

See also

• History of Christianity

External Links

• Paul Fargues, History of Christianity, 1929

References

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