History Of Iraq
The history of Iraq begins with Mesopotamia (see this article for ancient history), the region is home to some of the oldest world civilizations, Sumer , Assyria , Babylon.
The valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates belong then to a succession of empires which are foreign: Empires Persian Achaemenid , Greek ( Alexander the Great followed the Seleucids ), Parthian , Sassanid. In pre-Islamic period, this region is called Khvarvaran , which is a province of the Sassanid empire. The name derives from the Persian word Iraq Erak, which means "lower Iran."
Conquered by the Arabs under the Umayyads , Iraq is a time the center of the world Muslim under the Abbasids.
Iraq then becomes a battlefield between the empires of the Middle East, to conquer Britain in 1918, making it a sovereign state under British control.
Summary |
Iraq under Muslim empires
The Arab conquest
Mesopotamia is one of the first areas conquered by Arab Muslims in the seventh century. Disputed between the Umayyads and Alides , it remains in power after the first bloody battle of Karbala : the starting point of the conflict between Sunnis and Shiites.
The Golden Age of Abbasid
Iraq was then the center of the caliphate Abbasid of Baghdad.
Weakened by the revolt of slaves Zanj in the ninth century, the caliphate will dominate more directly than the central and southern Iraq. The north, around Mosul , owned by independent emirs, Hamdanids then Zenkides.
The Caliphate remains the symbol of the unity of Islam Sunni. Turks Seljuk pay homage to him, as most Muslim princes.
Decline
Ravaged by the Mongols of Hleg , then by the Turks of Eastern Timur , Iraq loses its central role when the last Abbasid caliphs who transfer their residence in Cairo.
For the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries , Iraq is a battleground between Iran and Safavids and the Ottoman Empire. First, it strengthens the implementation of the Shiite holy cities around Karbala and Najaf. But it remains the second master of the field, based on Turkmen and Sunni Arabs.
Iraq divided into three vilayets ( Mosul , Baghdad and Basra ), is a rather poor and marginal portion of the space ottoman. The diversion of the route to India by the Portuguese and other Europeans he lost what remained of economic importance.
Iraq played between Western imperialism
Iraq, the issue of Great War
Early in the twentieth century , the United Kingdom is interested in vilayets of Baghdad , Mosul and Basra for two main reasons: oil and security of the route to India. The Germany , she also tries to extend its influence through the railroad Berlin-Baghdad (see German article Bagdadbahn ).
During the First World War , the Ottoman Empire sided with the German and the Austrian Empire. In response, from the 22 November 1914 , the British-Indian troops of General Barret enter Basrah (Basra). The British favor a parallel between the revolt of the Arabs in 1916 , promising independence to the end of the war.
On 16 November 1916 , Britain's Sir Mark Sykes and the French Francois Georges-Picot signed the secret Sykes-Picot agreement by which France attributes to himself the tutelage of Syria and vilayet Mosul except Kirkuk and the United Kingdom on rest of Iraq.
On 11 March 1917 , British troops enter Baghdad. At the end of the war, Iraq does not pass under direct administration of the United Kingdom because of American pressure and hostility of the people. The British go through the League of Nations for the 25 April 1920 a mandate to administer the area ( San Remo Conference ). On August 10 , the Turkey , newly created on the ruins of the Ottoman Empire sign the Treaty of Sevres which requires him to recognize the loss of its Arab possessions. A Kurdish autonomous is also created between the East of Anatolia and vilayet Mosul. The resistance of Mustafa Kemal prevents the application of the Treaty of Sevres. The Treaty of Lausanne grants Turkey borders extended to Anatolia.
A kingdom under influence
In August 1921 , the British are up Faisal ibn Hussein , a son of Hussein ibn Ali , Sharif of Mecca , on the throne of Iraq under the name of Faisal I.. In 1925 , the Vilayet of Mosul is linked to Iraq ending in Kurdistan. A hereditary constitutional monarchy was adopted that year. But from 1920 , the first rising anti-mandate is repressed by the bombing.
On 15 October 1927 a huge oil field was discovered at Baba Gurgur near Kirkuk. Westerners founded a company, the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC) to replace the Turkish Petroleum Company founded in 1911 by the British, which, after talks with King Faisal I. , granted a franchise to virtually all the territory of the country. As a result, the CPI becomes virtually the only international partner of the young state.
From the Arab kingdom in the Arab Republic
The independence under British control
The United Kingdom and have sufficient control over Iraq, the Anglo-Iraqi agreement of 30 June 1930 replacing the British High Commissioner by an ambassador. Iraq becomes formally independent even if the British rule is still strong. The Arab nationalism that time begins to grow especially in the army and leads to an attempted coup in 1936.
On 8 July 1937 , Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan signed the Treaty of Sa'dabad. It provides inter alia for coordinating the fight against "subversion" Kurdish.
Iraq during the Second World War
On 1 April 1941 , the coup anti-British Rashid Ali al-Gaylani , establishes a republican regime. Rashid Ali's soldiers are supported by Germany. The High Commissioner and Commander in Chief in the Levant which depends on Vichy , the General Dentz , receives instruction under the Paris agreements not yet signed by Admiral Darlan , deliver weapons under control of the Italian armistice commission. These weapons will be delivered sabotaged and will not be used against the British. Moreover, some airfields serve to stop German planes on their way to Iraq.
On 1 June 1941 , following their intervention , the British regained control of Baghdad and to make the Regency Nuri - their eminence grise.
Even limited assistance provided by Syria and the Vichy government favors military action that General de Gaulle wanted to ensure an operational basis and which until then had opposed the British.
Fearing an occupation of Syria to Germany, they will intervene with the help of Free French Forces that De Gaulle imposed to prevent a takeover of English in this country had done since the beginning of the object of rivalry between France and Great Britain.
In 1948 , Iraq participated in the Arab-Israeli War of 1948-1949.
Iraq in the postwar
In the context of the Cold War , Nuri signed the Baghdad Pact in February 1955 and is thus linked to the UK. Meanwhile, Egypt's Nasser that overthrew the monarchy in 1952 chose to join the sphere of the Soviet Union. Arab nationalism continues to grow in the Iraqi army.
On 14 February 1958 in response to the creation of the United Arab grouping of Egypt and Syria , Iraq and Jordan in federate " Arab Union of Jordan and Iraq. "
A tumultuous republic
On 14 July 1958 , the General Abdul al-Karim Qasim overthrew King Faisal II and the Regent Abdul Illah. The royal family is murdered in the palace and Prime Minister Nuri Said tries to escape but was shot down. The new government soon to be shaken by conflict between supporters of Nasser (including General Kassem) and the Baath Party. From 1959 , he attempted a coup in which participates Saddam Hussein. The Arab Union of Jordan and Iraq and has denounced the Iraq moves closer to the United Arab Republic. In March 1959 , Iraq withdrew from the Baghdad Pact.
In September 1961 , Mustafa al Barzani launches a rebellion in northern Iraq with the slogan "autonomy for Kurdistan and democracy for Iraq."
On 9 February 1963 , Abdul Karim Qasim was assassinated in a coup d'etat. The Baath Party took power. On November 18 , Abdulasalam Arif took power in suppressing a new uprising Baas. Saddam Hussein is imprisoned until his escape in 1966.
On 29 June 1966 , an agreement was signed with the Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani al and opens a perspective of autonomy for Kurds in the future constitution.
On 17 July 1968 , the Baathists of General Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr surrounded the presidential palace and seized power on July 30. The Kurds are partners in power. Saddam Hussein is now number two in the plan and will organize Baathist militias who will punish opponents Nasserites and communists.
In March 1970 , the Baath Party endorses the creation of an autonomous Kurdish region and grants them certain rights. The Kurdish language becomes the second language, but the Kurds are self-sufficient.
In 1972 , the Soviet-Iraqi Treaty establishes ties between Iraq and the Soviet Union. The Iraq maintains relations with France.
In 1974 , Mustafa al Barzani 's Kurdish revolt recovery supported by the Iran and the United States despite the promulgation of the law of autonomy for Kurdistan on March 11.
In 1975 , following Algerian mediation, the Iraq and Iran signed the Algiers Accords that put an end to Iranian support to the Kurdish revolt. It is then repressed in blood.
The Iraq of Saddam Hussein
Vice-Chairman of Council of Revolutionary Command since 1969 , Saddam Hussein replaces Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr in 1979 as head of state when he retired for "health reasons".
The Iran-Iraq war
Following the Iranian Islamic revolution of 1979 , the Iraq fearing a revolt of Shiites of southern Iraq. They have always been dominated by the Sunni bourgeoisie even under the Ottoman Empire. 30 000 Shiites were deported. On 22 September 1980 declared war on the Iranian official on the border of the Shatt el-Arab (Delta Tigris and the Euphrates ). This is the Iran-Iraq war or the first Gulf War. The war ended without result in 1988.
In 1983 , the dictatorship to bombard the chemical weapon several villages in Kurdish northern Iraq and renew the operation in 1988 on the city Kurds of Halabjah. Nearly 6000 people die and 100,000 Kurds fled to Turkey. The chemical weapon is used against Iran over the city of Sardasht in 1987 and 1988. (Source: Le Monde, 10 June 2005 ).
The Gulf War (1990-1991)
Despite oil resources, the Iran-Iraq war left the Iraqi economy in poor condition. In the summer of 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait without thinking that the U.S. will react. International reaction causes the second Gulf War.
On 28 February 1991 , Iraq accepted all UN resolutions unconditionally. In the process, George Bush , U.S. President ordered the cease-fire without seeking to continue the war to Baghdad. The official version says this crash, indicating that the overthrow of the Iraqi regime was not the goal. Another theory suggests that as Iraq had shown its ability to send missiles Scuds at Israel and then he had chemical weapons, the Iraqi regime had succeeded in deterring the allies to go further.
The cease-fire is signed in Safwan on 3 March 1991.
The two Gulf wars
From the 5 March 1991 , the Kurdish north and Shiite south rose up against the regime greatly encouraged to do so by the allies. Saddam Hussein violently repressed the uprising and took control of Kurdish areas before the end of the month ending the "free Kurdistan" proclaimed two weeks earlier. On April 5 , the UN demands end to repression against the Kurds in Baghdad and asked to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian assistance ( resolution 688 ). On 7 April , the allies are organizing food drops to help the Kurdish refugees fleeing repression but rejected the Turkish border ( Operation Provide Comfort ). Iran also announced having raised almost 500,000 Iraqi refugees, but says not to be able to accommodate more. The Red Crescent also carries Turkish assistance in Iraq.
On April 28 , the system organizes lavish ceremonies to celebrate the 54th anniversary of Saddam Hussein and celebrate the "new Iraq". On May 3 , Iraq requires a period of five years to pay war reparations demanded by the UN.
From May 5th , the Allies begin to protect the Kurds and the international community imposes a no-fly zone thereby creating a de facto Kurdish state in embryo.
As of September 28 , Saddam Hussein finally agreed that experts mandated by the UN inspect facilities in Iraq to destroy non-conventional weapons and heavy artillery. In the month of October, the first heavy weapons are destroyed. The UN inspectors remain in Iraq until 1998.
On October 9 , agreement was reached between the Kurdish leaders and the Iraqi government after bitter fighting in the area of Kifri. For twelve years, Iraq suffered a ban with catastrophic consequences (1.5 million deaths, according to some sources) despite the UN program " Oil cons food. "
The autonomous Kurdistan
On 19 May 1992 , elections were held in the Kurdish autonomous region, but the region remains divided in two: a northern area controlled by the KDP ( Kurdistan Democratic Party ) and a southern zone controlled by the PUK ( Patriotic Union of Kurdistan ).
In April 1993 , Iranian troops invaded part of the autonomous region and thousands of Kurdish peasants fleeing from artillery. Similarly, the Turks invaded the area called "protection" in March 1995 with 35,000 men. Turkish interference will continue for several years.
After violent confrontations with the PUK, the KDP demand in September 1996 with Iraqi troops. The PUK is then driven out of Erbil, the capital of Iraqi Kurdistan.
In September 1998 , the KDP and the PUK agreed on forming a government and an interim parliament in Iraqi Kurdistan ( Washington Accord ).
The United States adopted in October 1998 the Iraq Liberation Act , which provides support to 97 million dollars to the Iraqi opposition, including Kurdish parties, to overthrow Saddam Hussein.
On 8 September 2002 : the KDP and PUK sign a peace agreement and revive the "unified Parliament" while Washington is preparing to invade Iraq.
The "third Gulf War"
On 11 September 2001 , the United States undergo a wave of terrorist attacks (see the attacks of September 11, 2001 ). An international coalition fighter then in 2002 the Taliban from power in Afghanistan. The U.S. government is trying, end 2002 , to convince the international community that a link exists between the Islamic extremists of Al Qaeda and the Iraqi government. When in doubt, it has elements presented as evidence that Iraq had reconstituted a potential of weapons of mass destruction. These "proofs" are numerous and very specific (there are particular "snapshots of secret Iraqi military installations), so the argument that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction at the time seemed quite plausible. However, these "proofs" are quickly challenged, and today it appears clear that these were fakes.
Faced with the possibility of veto of France or Russia in the Security Council of UN , a coalition formed reduced for invading Iraq and taking action on 20 March 2003. The Iraq War is officially ended on May 1. In fact, if the strength of the regular army was very brief, the coalition was soon faced with a multifaceted violence of factions and groups illegal uncontrollable. The anti-American attacks, but also anti-Shia, the actions of Shia and Kurdish militias, the "policing" exercise abruptly by U.S. troops and units of mercenaries, give the impression of a hopeless quagmire. However, despite the electoral defeat of Republicans U.S. in 2006, the will of President George W. Bush to continue fighting until the end is nonetheless underway.
The post-Saddam Hussein
The occupation of the Allies
Following the war, the country is occupied by the coalition. Since then, shares of the guerrillas continue to take place in Baghdad and in the "Sunni triangle" formed by the provinces north of the capital.
In March 2004 , just days before elections in Spain , a series of attacks (claimed by Islamist extremists) took place in Madrid. The government Aznar , then in place, immediately blaming the ETA before retracting found himself confronted with his support for the war in Iraq / A> that was not collecting the approval of the people. The question raised by the terrorists was the Spanish presence in Iraq. During the elections that followed, weeks later, the government Aznar was defeated in favor of Zapatero. The latter decided to withdraw Spanish troops from the coalition.
Towards independence?
On 28 June 2004 , power was handed over to an interim government led by Iyad Allawi.
In late 2004, most of the country is pacified said:
- Northern inhabited by Kurds , has been autonomous since almost ten years, and at peace, although its margins ( Mosul and Kirkuk ) attacks take place;
- South Shia is pacified by the British and Polish ;
- the Sunni center of the country is still the main place for attacks against Iraqis and U.S. military (eg Battle of Fallujah ).
In 2005 , the attacks are increasing, some cities are sometimes taken over by the Iraqi resistance ( Fallujah ). Journalists and diplomats abroad (including Arabs ) are kidnapped and executed by members of the network expressed Al-Qaeda , a member of parliament was assassinated. A crisis between the U.S. and Italy , where at the release of an Italian hostage, soldiers from the U.S. military fired on the car of the former hostages and killing the Italian secret agent who secured the release.
The Poland said in April, withdraw its troops in December 2005 at the latest An early stabilization? Over 2 million Iraqis living in exile, particularly Syria and Jordan. Despite the persistent attacks and kidnappings in Iraq beyond the institutional and economic stagnation. Several reasons for this, according to the magazine " The Economist ", to which soaring oil prices allowed the country to have money in an amount such that everyone is benefiting. Cause or consequence, the lull on the military fronts and confrontation intermilices reduction are factors of stability. Thus, Basra saw its housing market again with prices doubling in a few months. The rallying of forces some Sunnis to the U.S. military and the attitudes of factions Shiites who have laid down their arms to play the political game suggest that the state of anarchy that prevailed since 2003 is coming to. Suddenly, the government of Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki to gain credibility and authority. He announced the departure of all foreign forces before 2011 election supported by U.S. President Obama. The elections scheduled before the end of the year ( 2008 ) will be a test in two respects. Bibliography
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