History Of Algeria
This article discusses the history of Algeria , not only the history of the Republic of Algeria today. The civilization in human Maghreb dates back thousands of years but this is only from the antiquity that space begins to take its present form by splitting into three regions, peoples: Eastern Maghreb, North Africa and central western Maghreb. The people of the Maghreb region-central evolve over the centuries into the modern Algerian nation-state.
Prehistory (- 1.8 Ma - 7500 years)
Paleolithic
Site of Ain El Ahnech (- 1.8 Ma)
The oldest documented remains of hominids in North Africa have been unearthed at the site of Ain El Ahnech near Setif. The site is considered the oldest deposit archaeological of North Africa. The age of the remains is assessed by archaeomagnetism to 1.8 million years, coinciding with the period of the alleged appearance of Homo habilis.
Site Tighennif (- 800 000 - 400 000)
The site Acheulean of Tighennif (formerly Ternifine or Palikao) in the wilaya of Mascara , has yielded the remains of which age is estimated between 800,000 and 400,000 BP. Among these remains, consisting mainly of animal bones and artifacts of chipped stone , archaeologists discovered the bones of hominid that led to the definition of Atlanthropians now considered a Homo erectus , The man Tighennif is considered the oldest known representative of the peopling of North Africa .
The Atlanthropians had a smaller brain than modern man and a stronger jaw. He was a contemporary of other variants of Homo erectus, such as Pithecanthropus of the island of Java. THE lived Atlanthropians gathering and hunting and moving frequently in his quest for food. He held the central Maghreb for several millennia and manufactured bifaces and cleavers as well as several other tools .
He disappeared around 250 000 BP. Indeed, it was around this time that Homo erectus disappeared after nearly 2 million years of existence (possibly evolving into Homo heidelbergensis in Europe). Algeria is therefore exclusively populated by Homo sapiens , from the Horn of Africa, occupying the central Maghreb for 150 centuries, from 250 000 to 50 000 BC. BC, until the late Middle Paleolithic. From - up to 50 000 - 20 000 BC. AD, the Acheulean gives way to the Aterian , .
The Aterian (- 50 000 - 7500)
Roughly corresponding to the Middle Paleolithic and higher , the Aterian was identified from remains unearthed at the site namesake of Bir el-Ater , in the wilaya of Tebessa. It lasts approximately - 50 000 years until the revolution Neolithic to 7500 BCE. AD During this period, around 20,000 BC. BC, heavy rains fall on the Sahara and north of Algeria, knowing when a very humid climate to foster the development of populations of elephants , of giraffes , of rhinos and other things, that Aterians hunt in large numbers .
The excavations have revealed archaeological weapons probably hunting, very refined, made from stone, wood or even rope. The first spearheads the Maghreb are introduced by Aterians and are called Oranien (also Iberomaurusian ). These industries appear to have arisen 15 000 years BC. Around AD of Oran in western Algeria, before spreading across the North African coast for five millennia after .
Neolithic
The Aterian disappeared around 7500 BC. AD, during the Neolithic Revolution. The Neanderthal has long been considered the author of Aterian but this species is now seen as exclusively Eurasian. It is likely that Homo sapiens archaic tools have produced Aterian .
With the Neolithic Revolution occur companies settled that produce their food through the agriculture and domestication. In Algeria, the revolution leads to civilization Capsian , .
Protohistory (-7500 to -2000 years)
Civilization Capsian (-7500 to -2000)
Civilization Capsian , ancestor of the Berbers , appears with the Neolithic revolution between 9000 and 7500 BC. BC and lasts until the appearance of the Iron Age around 2000 BC. The AD Capsians, direct ancestors of Numidian Berbers, appear in the south of Constantine first, before spreading across the Maghreb. The Capsians who lived in camps and huts made from branches generally settled on sites near a river or a mountain pass. At that time most of the Maghreb was like a savanna, as in East Africa today, with forests Mediterranean only in high altitude .
The Capsians were the first to domesticate the Maghreb ovicaprids and cattle . They were considered the first artists of the Maghreb, they made various objects, including decorative art objects and jewelry such as necklaces from seashells and various abstract and figurative paintings . The Capsians fed sheep and cattle and agricultural products, but also of snails : The effect of large deposits of shells of snails era Capsian were found, including Mechta Sidi el Arbi in the wilaya of Constantine. From the perspective of anatomical and Capsians consisted of 2 ethnic types: the Mechta afala (Mechtodes) Proto Mediterranean and some think they have migrated from the east, they assimilate
older people (the Mechtodes) . Capsian culture is recognized by historians as the ancestor of linguists Berber languages in North Africa, and decorating pottery Capsian is a strong resemblance to pottery decoration modern Berber. Little is known of the religion of Capsians. However, their burial practices (mounds of stones, and figurative paintings) suggest that they believed in life after death .
Around 3000 BC the Capsians began to migrate south of the Tell Atlas and moved beyond the current Batna and to gradually edge of the Sahara that were at the time further south, towards the Current Tamanrasset. During this same period, the Sahara had dried up quickly, becoming an extremely arid desert, as we know it today. The Maghreb had not known the Bronze Age , as throughout Africa, civilization Capsian survives until the beginning of the Iron Age , with the appearance of furnaces to 1500 BC. That said, this old theory of direct transition to the Iron Age has been abandoned with the discovery of performances of metal weapons on the rock carvings of the High Atlas of Morocco . Capsians the Sahara migrated leaving behind cave paintings beautiful as those of Tassili N'adjjer from the period -5000 to -1500 or those of the El-Bayadh and reflecting the lifestyle of hunting, Agriculture and Capsian rites, and the gradual drying of the Sahara which began from 2600 BC and coincided with their period. The aridity of the desert that followed this civilization has preserved these works naturally in outdoor museums and this through several millennia. Today the contrast between the lush wildlife painted on these paintings and the aridity of the Sahara Desert present strengthens the historical and artistic attraction. Unfortunately, these paintings are today threatened by tourists of rock art sites in the Sahara and the ensuing damage .
Antiquity (-1250 to the year 250)
The history of Algeria in Antiquity is marked by the emergence of the kingdoms of the Iron Age which spread over a period of about 1500 years. These kingdoms were the first Getulians south of the country, and the foundation counters Phoenicians in the north, then Garamantes and finally Numidians.
Middle Ages
Period: Islamization of Algeria (647-776)
Ibn Khaldun gives a table that summarizes nearly all the important dynasties in Algeria in the Middle Ages , .
Umayyad Caliphate (647-743)
Barbary, as it had once been during the period Punic , finds himself attached to the East. Islam extinguished the torch of the Western world and Christianity . The Berbers fled en masse to the arrival of Islam by taking refuge in Sicily .
The fall of Rome and the Vandals, and instability during the Byzantine period lead to the rebuilding of several Berber principalities. Some, particularly in the Aures , will resist the arrival of Muslims between 670 and 702.
The best-known figures from this conflict were the Christian king Koceila , who defeated Ibn Nafaa Oqba in 689 , near Biskra , then the warrior queen Kahena (real name Dihya), who as head of the Berbers (the Djerawas , the Banu Ifren the Aures and Nefzaoua of Libya Tripoli and the coast of Rum) inflicted in 693 at the Battle of Meskiana a severe defeat in expeditionary Arab Emir Ibn Hassan Numan , she drove until Tripoli. But she lost the next battle in part because of the treachery of an Arab boy she had adopted (Khaled) and partly because his men, wanting to make a scorched earth policy to discourage the invasion sparked the opposition from farmers Rum who passed on the Arab side. Kahena died in combat in eastern Algeria today (Well Kahena, "Bir al Kahena).
Many Berbers then convert en masse to Islam. Some even adopt the language of the conquerors, especially in the East of Ifriqya. The Muslim conquest of Spain and southern France that followed was led by a contingent Arab-Berber had many recent converts, starting with their leader Tariq ibn Ziyad , who gave his name to the hill of Gibraltar (Jabal Tariq). After a dispute with the governor of North Africa Moussa Ibn Noar , Tariq Ibn Ziad was sent chained to the caliph of Damascus and died en route. As for Arab immigration in North Africa, it was unimportant, except in two regions outside Algeria, one of Kairouan and that of Tangier. He added there later arrival of Arab Bedouin tribes named Banu Hilal in some southern regions.
Kharidjisme Amazigh ( 736 to 947 )
Imazighen are quick to rebel against the authority of the Caliph of the East, both for tax reasons rather than political. Several autonomous kingdoms Amazigh are emerging. In the central Maghrib, one of them, the principality of Tahert , developed for 140 years. Following the great schism of Islam, when `Ali , son of the prophet disputing the caliphate to Muawiya , accepted a settlement, after which Muawiya was the winner. Islam is divided into two main branches: the followers of the dominant branch took the name of Sunni and those who claimed Ali became the Shiites. The industry prevailed in North Africa is Sunni.
It was not always the case since at the time of the schism, the Shiite branch was in turn subjected to a split: some of the supporters of Ali reproached him for having accepted the compromise with Muawiya and 12 000 his men left the army. Their tendency was renamed kharidjisme. The kharidjisme subsequently developed with a major North Africa, where he was greeted warmly by many Amazigh. The revolt began at Tangier in 742.
Another phenomenon, the Amazigh kharidjisme sufrite and nekarite took root not only in religious fervor, but also in the popular discontent. The Amazigh kharidjisme is based on elections for leaders. A big mess and bloodied Heavy fighting in North Africa. These massacres and devastation led to, among other consequences, the creation of kingdoms Rustamid and later Idrisid , and the arrival in power of the dynasty of the Shiite Fatimids.
As for kharidjisme, he disappeared entirely from North Africa where he has remained in southern Algeria, at Mzab. The current originating Mzab or Mozabites , exercise today in the rest of Algeria, the most peaceful activities, especially in contrast with the taste for battle from their ancestors.
Berber Revolt of Abu Qurra (736-790)
Around 736 , Abu Qurra of Banu Ifren is elected as king of the Banu Ifren and as caliph Berbers kharidjites sufrite . Qurra Abu gather all the Berbers under his command. Qurra Abu wages war against all the despotic regimes of the Umayyads , the Fatimids and the Abbasids. Qurra Abu wins all battles. It will draw its power across the Maghreb. He left his position after only a few differences appear between him and his subordinates. Qurra Abu returned to Tlemcen and controls the Banu Ifren. He will invite Idris in Tlemcen and intends to pacify the region.
Period: Muslim Arab and Berber dynasties (776-1556)
Rustamid Dynasty ( 776 to 909 )
Ibn Rustom takes as wife a woman Berber Banu Ifren and have children a kingdom Ibadite in northern Maghreb with Tahert its capital . The latter, as the emirate of Cordoba since its inception in 756 , retains its independence from the Caliphate of the Abbasids, despite diplomatic pressure and military as well as the loss of territories . In 909, beset by internal crises, the Shiite leader and founder of the dynasty of the Fatimids, Obeid Allah , put an end to the kingdom Rustamid .
Dynasty Idrisside 788 to 985
Idris takes as a wife and Berber will have a child, Idriss II. Two versions of events exist: The first is that Abu Qurra Idriss calls to 790 to stay in Tlemcen . The second version is that includes Idris and his allies made an incursion in Tlemcen. The chief Mohamed Ibn Khaz will Maghraoua allegiance to Idris to 790. In sum, there will be no fighting between Idris and Zenetes .
Idris will fight kharidjites and Aghlabids when taking power in the Maghreb.
Dynasty Ifrenide of 790 to 1066
Berber dynasty Ifrenides , was formerly established their kingdom of Tlemcen. The Banu Ifren part of Zenetes and they are the most powerful confederations Zenetes .
The Banu Ifren survive all attacks. One of them conquered the Maghreb el Aqsa (Morocco current), and others settled in Al-Andalus. The rest of this dynasty to keep his ancestral kingdom Tlemcen . The Banu Ifren be opponents of all ideological systems. They choose to be sufrite Berber , in the early eighth century. In the tenth century, Abu Yazid , about 942 will be the leader of the revolt against the Fatimids. But about 947 , he will be killed. Therefore, the Banu Ifren organize a fight against the Fatimids. At first the Fatimids discharge some of Banu Ifren west of Algeria . A major offensive will be organized under the command of Yala Mohamed Ibn against the Fatimids. The Banu Ifren resume their territories through Yala ibn Mohammed , and monitor all of western countries. Yala Mohamed Ibn completely destroyed Oran and chooses Ifgan as military capital. The Fatimids will then alliance with Banu Ifren .
Subsequently, the capital of the Banu Ifren be sacked by al-Jawhar Siqilli , the Fatimids. This will kill Yala Mohamed Ibn treacherously. A revolt broke out immediately against the Fatimids. The Zenetes resume their territories through Ziri Ibn Attia of Maghraoui. Ziri Ibn Attia joins forces with the leaders of Banu Ifren. Several leaders of the Banu Ifren will govern the tribe and will invade the Maghreb el Aksa .
Fierce battles between the three dynasties ( Maghraoua , Ifrenides and Zirids ) start for power in the Maghreb. It shows that the Banu Ifren will not give face to the two dynasties and Tlemcen is their capital. Banu Ifren dynasty ends with the arrival of Hilalians and Almoravids in North Africa .
Dynasty Aghlabid 800 to 909
In 800 , the Caliph Abbasid Harun al-Rashid delegated its authority in Ifriqiya an Arab governor of Zab , Ibrahim ibn Al-Aghlab, who gets the taffy emir .
Al-Aghlab establishes Dynasty Aghlabid, who reigns over a century on the eastern and central Maghreb. The territory enjoys formal independence while recognizing the Abbasid sovereignty.
Subsequently, the emirs Aghlabid continue to pay allegiance to the Abbasid caliph.
Fatimid Dynasty (909 to 972)
The origin of the dynasty Fatimid Shia goes back to the tenth century, where between 909 and 1171 , Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi , a Shia Ismaili native of Syria , settled in Kabylia in founding a caliphate Dissident Abbasids of Baghdad.
Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi, whose nickname Al-Mahdi (), means "one who is guided (by God), then boasted of being a descendant of the prophet indirect Mohammed , through his daughter Fatima Zahra and his son Ali ibn Abi Talib. The Sunnis , who disputed the assertion in particular, were persecuted under the rule of the Fatimids. The Sunni historian also keep track of this dynasty under a different name, that of "Ubaydites.
The caliph, during a visit to Sijilmassa in Morocco , home of kharidjisme , was captured by the Berbers Zenata. The dai qarmates were then sent as emissaries by Ismail bin Jafar from tribes Berber attempt to negotiate their support and free their leader. The tribe Kutama agreed to join the Fatimids, which led to the liberation of Al Mahdi. After his release he recruited Kutama with new Berber fighters, culminating in the conquest of Ifriqiya of Aghlabids , and extending the influence of the dynasty over much of North Africa.
The Zenetes however does not mean they left open field: At the height of a period of turmoil amid rebellion Kharijites , tribal Berber Zenata of Abu Yazid succeed in 944 to defeat the Fatimid army and seizing Kairouan.
Then the Zirids , allies of the Fatimids, are timely to the rescue of the Shiites: The Berber leader Ziri ibn Manada , together with the tribes under his authority Sanhadja , routs tribes Zenetes and save the Fatimid empire. There will win the post of governor of central Maghreb as a reward for his loyalty.
Gradually weakened the Fatimid army recomposed, always drawing their forces in Kutama, but now also in Persia and Syria, where the mercenaries tributary. They finally succeed to re-impose in masters of western Maghreb, before turning their armed force to the East, culminating in the conquest of Egypt in 969.
From that moment, the Fatimids began to lose interest in their homelands, leaving them to progressively fall into the hands of Zirids to a point where in 1060 the dynasty had lost territory to as Egypt.
Dynasty Maghraoua of 970 to 1068
The Maghraoua being a tribe Zenetes , they had their own kingdom in the Chlef current. Maghraoua will ally with the Fatimids and the Umayyads , but they will eventually form an independent dynasty , as the capital which will Oujda. The Maghraoua through Ziri Ibn Attia take the main towns in the west ( Tlemcen , Tiaret ) and Zibans. The Maghraoua invade the northern Maghreb el Aqsa (now Morocco) and choose Fez as their capital. The Maghraoua take the place of Idrissids. Yeddou of Banu Ifren organize an operation to overthrow and try to seize power across western Maghreb hands of Maghraoui. Yeddou manage to take Fez of Maghraoui. The two dynasties Zenetes make war. Several heads of Maghraoua will command the dynasty until its fall to 1068 .
Zirid Dynasty (972-1152)
Dynasty Zirid , founded by Ibn Bologhine Ziri son of Zira ibn Menad native tribes Berber Sanhadjas , ruled the Ifriqiya and part of al-Andalus , for about two centuries, with successively Achir , Kairouan and Mahdia to capitals .
In 1046 , when vassals of the Fatimids , the Zirid completely break their relations, recognizing the Abbasids of Baghdad as caliphs legitimate Zirides show openly to abandon the Shiite Fatimids. To suppress Zirids send the Fatimids in 1052 the Banu Hilal destroying Kairouan in 1057. Mahdia became the new capital of the empire.
The Banu Hilal were devastating the country Berber , prompting Zirid in al-Andalus , which ravished the Taifa of Granada.
An offshoot of the family rules on Grenada until 1090. Taifa this was the first form of the Kingdom of Granada , which could be maintained for a century in the context of frozen wars following the end of the Western Caliphate. Their fortress, built on the Albaicin the medina primitive is the first refuge of Nazari. They have more time to make their mark on the country around Granada.
The last prince Zirid died in 1048 , however it is in 1152 in Algeria , as the latest face to cede Zirids Almohads.
Hammadid Dynasty (1014 to 1152)
Dynasty Hammadid , a branch of Zirids since its founder Ibn Hammad Bologhine is the son of ibn Bologhine Ziri , ruled over a territory roughly corresponding to the current Algeria (excluding the Sahara ) for a century and a half.
Ibn Hammad Bologhine founded the dynasty in 1014 by declaring itself independent Zirids , and recognizing the legitimacy of the caliphs the Abbasids of Baghdad. A cease-fire was reached in 1016 , but it was not until 1018 that recognize the authority of Zirids Hammadids.
Their capital is initially al-Qala (The Kalaa Beni Hammad ), when threatened by the Banu Hilal, becomes Bejaia.
Incursions Hilalians , from 1052 , greatly weakening the dynasty until it is finally defeated with the arrival of Almohads.
Migration Hilali (1052 to 1152)
Following the break with Zirides and in order to punish them, the Fatimids send the Banu Hilal , a confederation of tribes who came mostly from Egypt.
The Banu Hilal, waves, incursions into cities, looting and destroying everything in their path. Their number does not exceed a few tens of thousands of people according to the writings and studies of Ibn Khaldun, however, they were allied with the Hammadids , allowing the destruction of Ifrenides .
Other sources speak of mass immigration (for the relevant time) of more than 200,000 Bedouin Arabs .
This wave of Arab immigration is often cited as an example in the continental movements of premodern populations.
It would be wrong to imagine the arrival of these tribes as a marching army occupying meticulously ground and fighting in a war without thank you Zirides and their cousins, the Hammadites, who staged a separate kingdom in Algeria. It would be wrong to believe also that there were between Arabs and Berbers invaders a total confrontation, racial or national type. Tribes that enter the Maghreb countries occupy the open, are joining forces to seize the cities they plundered systematically, and then disperse again, bringing further looting and destruction .
Berber princes, Zirids Hammadites later Almohad Merinids and do not hesitate to use military force, always available, as are nomads who, step by step, and penetrate further into the North African campaigns.
Upon arrival of the Bedouin Arab, Berber rulers are considering using this new strength in their struggles. Thus, far from worrying about the penetration of the Banu Hilal, Sultan Zirid their research alliance to fight his cousins and provides shamelessly Hammadid one of his daughters in marriage to the sheikh of Ryah, which does not prevent those same Arabs to beat by twice, in 1050 to Hadra and at Kairouan in 1052, the armies and invade Zirid Ifriqiya soon entirely under anarchy. Meanwhile, the Berbers Hammadids get the help of their cousin fighting Athbej Ryah like themselves struggling against their cousins Zirid in a tangle of betrayals and fratricidal struggles between groups of similar ethnicity.
In 1152, a century after the arrival of the first contingents Bedouins, the Beni Hilal come together to meet the growing power of Almohad masters Maghreb al-Aqsa and the greater part of central Maghreb, but it is too late and they are crushed at the Battle of Setif. Ironically, this defeat does not hinder their expansion, it only changes the process. Almohades, successors of Abd el-Moumen, do not hesitate to use their quotas and, more serious consequences, they ordered the deportation of many fractions Ryah, Athbej Djochem and in various provinces in the Maghreb al-Aqsa, in the Haouz plains and the Atlantic that are linguistically and culturally Arabized and .
Almoravid Dynasty (1063 to 1102)
The Almoravids (in Arabic al-Murabitun, ) are a dynasty Berber , from the Sahara , who reigned over the Sahara , part of North Africa and much of the Iberian peninsula ( al-Andalus ) (end XI century -early twelfth century ).
It Yahya ibn Ibrahim , who, Islamization in 1035 Berber tribe, gave birth to a religious community member who will be responsible for the Almoravid dynasty, but it is often Abdallah Ibn Yasin who is considered the spiritual father of this movement. At the head of an army of increasingly impressive converts it by force its neighbors, enjoying the excuse to expand their territorial influence. From 1054, they set out to conquer the empire of Ghana.
The successor to Abdullah ibn Yasin, Abu Bakr Ibn Umar is considered the first ruler Almoravid. It was he who, around 1070 , founded the city of Marrakech , in Ghana before returning to his capital in 1076. The sovereigns will continue following the aggressive policy of military conquest and religious hitherto led, leading to the capture of Fez and Tlemcen in 1075 and 1080. In 1086 , with Arab princes of Spain, the Almoravids inflicted a severe defeat on Alfonso VI of Castile in the Battle of Sagrajas. Marrakech was the capital of an immense empire, from Niger in the Tagus. It is the climax of the Almoravids who are one of the largest Mediterranean powers but also African.
Youssef Ibn Tasufin attacks Banu Ifren and Maghraoua and all Zenetes. It takes Sal hands of Ifrenides He kills and Laghouat. Youssef Ibn Tasufin marries a Zenetes Nefouza said Zaineb (former wife of Laghouat) and continued the conquests Almoravids to the north, taking Fez in 1075, and Tlemcen in 1080 , and founded the kingdom of Tlemcen, which included the modern Morocco and part of Algeria to Western Bejaia (about Tessala ). The Almoravids be beaten by Al Mansour Bejaia in 1102 and they will be forced to retire in the Maghreb al-Aqsa (now Morocco).
Some sources also indicate that the Almoravids take Tlemcen Ifrenides and Algiers (Icosium) . Other sources report that the Almoravids stop at terminals Zirids and also Hammadids .
Other sources, finally, that sotiennent Almoravids after being defeated by the Hammadids abandoning Tlemcen , Achir in 1002 . According to other authors, Tessala is near Tlemcen. Alena and Ben Nacer In the Hammadids took power from his cousin in the killing resumed Bouloughine Achir, N'Gaous, Miliana, Constantine, Algiers, Hamza in 1063 .
But the empire is weakened Almoravid by the resistance of Christian princes and especially by the agitation of the Almohad , opponents of Malikism , who preached holy war against the Almoravids. In 1142 , the Almohad agitation was at its height and territories of al-Andalus shatters. The empire Almoravids, more and more fragmented, suffers a defeat by the Almohad near Oran. The capture of Marrakech by Almohads in 1147 marked the end of the empire of the Almoravids.
Almohad dynasty (1152-1247)
The movement Almohad consists of Masmouda and Zenetes , he was born in reaction to authority Maliki in place, namely the Almoravids. In the same way that was born the ruling dynasty, the dissidents exiled in the High Atlas began by creating a military and religious community in the years 1120. Opposition grows in power, and it forces are strengthened. The war, inevitably, burst, and Tlemcen , Fez and Marrakesh fall, heralding the demise of the Almoravids in 1147. As in years and the different kingdoms, the Almohad will enlarge their kingdom, and eventually unify all the Maghreb and south of Al-Andalus for half a century.
In 1212 , during the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa , they undergo a major defeat by the Christian armies of the Iberian peninsula , ending the myth of invincibility Muslim. In the Maghreb, local dynasties are needed, such as Hafsids in the Ifriqiya and eastern Algeria in 1230 , the Abdalwadides in the central Maghrib in 1235 or the Merinids in 1258 in the western Maghreb . While in Al-Andalus , the Nasrid of Granada create an independent kingdom in 1238 . At the same time, the Reconquista progresses, Cordoba , the city symbol of Islam Iberian falls 1236 , Valencia in 1238 , Seville in 1248. The Merinids terminate the Almohad Empire in 1269 , by making Marrakech.
Hafsid Dynasty (1230-1574)
The Hafsids () are a dynasty Berber Masmouda reign over the Ifriqiya over three centuries.
First ally and vassal of the Almohad , the dynasty was proclaimed independent in 1230. It is then divided between two capitals Bejaia and Tunis. Throughout the fourteenth century, when the empire unified by Abu Yahya Abu Bakr al-Mutawakkil , undergoes reorganization into two or even three states, as many internal rebellions render unstable empire. This is the fifteenth century under Muhammad IV al-Mutansir , the dynasty reached its peak, then the control Hafsid territory that stretches from eastern Algeria from of Algiers to the north- western Libya in Tripoli.
In the sixteenth century, the empire, again greatly weakened by internal strife, sudden attacks of the Spaniards who landed on the coastal cities like Bejaia , and Turks.
Zianides Dynasty (1235-1556)
The Zianides ( in Arabic ), also known Abdalwadides are a dynasty Berber Zenata who reigned from Tlemcen , from 1235 to 1556 , founded by Ibn Yghomracen Zyan and the extent of which the United foreshadowed some of today's Algeria.
The Abdalwadides , were driven to the high plains of Oran by the invasion of the Banu Hilal in 1051. Governors appointed by Tilimsen Almohads / A>, they arrogated to themselves an autonomous power, thus contributing to the fall thereof. They later fell under the domination of their rivals, the Merinids of Fez (from 1337 to 1348 and from 1352 to 1359 ) Marinid Dynasty (1258-1465) Mrinides or Marinids ( 
Established in the southern Aures (region of Biskra , Algeria), the Banu Marin were gradually, from the eleventh century , pushed westward by the arrival of Arab tribes of Banu Hilal. When Abd al- Mumin are conquered empire, they were established in the high plains of Oran . Mrinides dominate between 1258 and 1465 . The center of their kingdom lies between Taza and Fez , its borders, which evolve over time are the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the area of Zianides in the East and the Sahara south.
Between 1275 and 1340 , Mrinides try to take the Nazarite kingdom what was then an ally of the kingdom Zianides . Their defeat at the battle of Tarifa to the Portuguese-Castilian coalition marks the completion of their intervention in the Iberian Peninsula.
In 1358 , the death of Abu Inan Faris, killed by one of his viziers marks the beginning of the decline of the dynasty which fails to repress the Portuguese and Spanish, allowing them, and through their successors the Wattassides , settling on the coast. Resistance organized around guilds and marabouts from which the future dynasty Saadian Valley Draa.
The arrival of the Andalusians and Moriscos
Several dynasties Berbers have occurred in the history of Al-Andalus : Ifrenides , Zirids , Hammadids , Almoravids , Almohad , Zianides and Merinids.
The Catholic Kings will finish the Reconquista in 1492. Part of Jews took refuge in North Africa, another emigration to the Ottoman Empire. From that date, the Spaniards will broadcast the Moorish culture in America (The techniques of irrigation, sugar, coffee, etc..)
The arrival of Al-Andalus and Mudejars coincide with the progression of the Reconquista until its completion. After 1502, all Muslims will be arriving in Algeria called Moors ( Moriscos ), the latter will be permanently expelled from the Iberian Peninsula from 1609 under Philip III, following the decree of expulsion of the Moors . A portion of them will move elsewhere in Europe, many were converted to Christianity, the rest took refuge in North Africa .
So in this situation, thousands of families come to Spain and Sicily in North Africa. They flock to the cities of northern countries, including: Oran , Tlemcen , Nedroma , Mostaganem , Cherchell , Blida , Algiers , Kolea , etc.. , These large families, who have done all that they could to stay in their home countries, are forced to live in a land that is completely unknown. Their contribution will be very important in society, culture will be in the foreground, and the construction of cities and the economy. These families are going to change much for the decor of the social scene at the time .
The Spanish occupation in the sixteenth century
In July 1501 , the Portuguese launched an expedition to try to land on the beach of Andalusia . Must await the landing of Mers-el-Kebir in 1505 , to see Spain take the first expedition against Oran. The city had about 25,000 inhabitants. Taking the city by the army of Cardinal Francisco Jimnez de Cisneros , commanded by Pedro Navarro , took place on 17 May 1509. After the occupation of the port of Mers-el-Kebir ( 1505 ), and the city of Oran ( 1509 ), the city was deserted, and then fully occupied by the troops Spanish. From 1509 , Cardinal Ximenes began construction on the ruins of the mosque of Ibn El Beitar St. Louis church, which dominates the Old Town on both sides. In 1554 , Governor Earl of Alcaudete made an alliance with the Sultan of Morocco Mohammed esh Sheikh against the Turks, then settled in Algiers , and still managed to maintain the Spanish presence. The Spaniards proceeded to work to restore the fortress to house the governors of the city. "The fortifications of the place consisted of a continuous wall, topped by strong towers spaced apart, the castle itself, or casbah. The Spanish governor "will establish his headquarters in this dungeon" . Extended over a mile and a half, these included many strong fortifications, bastions and towers
lookouts. In the sixteenth century , Spaniards are thus to Oran, a fortress and a prison built on a rocky outcrop near the harbor of Mers El Kebir. This place was populated by many monkeys (los monos in Spanish ) which gave its name to the fortress. The Spanish prisoners locked up in La Mona could see their families once a year, on Easter Sunday. Mona was the name of the cake with them entailed by the pilgrims to the Virgin and visitors Murdjajo. In 1563 , Don Silva y lvarez de Bazn, Marquis of Santa Cruz, built atop the peak of the fort Adour Santa Cruz. In 1568 , Don Juan of Austria visited Mers-el-Kebir and Oran. The Jews of Oran had no easy life with the Spaniards , considered enemies of religion. The Jews who lived in Ras El Ain and Ravin White were expelled out of Oran by the Spaniards from 1669 and last lived in the mountains of La Corniche Superieure (Misserghin). Despite these fortifications, the city was subject to constant attacks to the foot of the ramparts. In 1701 , The Rozalcazar or Bordj Lahmar, or New Castle, was considered the largest of the fortifications of the city of Oran. Thus in 1707 , Moulay Ismail , Sultan of Morocco has tried to force the defense, saw his army decimated. The city, therefore, has grown steadily: it needs to save space and air beyond the walls. The demolition of the walls is carried out over several years. Now it was during this time that the Spaniards shut themselves inside the fort, for lack of supplies, feeding for the first time the famous calentica (in Spanish, caliente means hot) or Garantita. In 1770 , Oran is a town of 532 private houses and 42 buildings, a population of 2 317 citizens and 2,821 prisoners engaged in free trade. Under the King of Spain , Carlos III and conservationists City clash. Between 1780 and 1783 , the Minister proposed al Floridablanca, England exchange Oran cons Gibraltar.
In 1510 , Ferdinand the Catholic attack the city of Algiers. The Spaniards besieged it and built on an island in the Bay of Algiers a fortress, the Rock of Algiers, designed to bombard the city and prevent its supply. Salem Ben Toumi Chief Beni Mezghenna request assistance from the Turks .
Pedro Navarro takes Bejaia in 1510 in 1555. He arrived on 5 January 1510 with 5000 men and attacked the city. Abderrahmane between 10 000 soldiers, he launched immediately against the Spaniards during landing. At the same time, he bombarded the city. The assault was repulsed, however, thanks to the Marine Artillery. The Spanish response begins immediately, with sea and land bombardment. Most of the battle takes place in the city. In the end, Abderrahmane managed to escape and there will be many dead. Navarro's fame and the story of his military exploits encourage kings of Algiers , in Tunis and Tlemcen to pay the tribute to the King of Spain and release all their prisoners Christians. However in 1514 , thanks to a combined attack of Kabyle led by Sidi Ahmed el Kadhi or the head of 20,000 men and Turks by sea, the city of Bejaia will be temporarily freed from the Spanish presence. The Spaniards then will be permanently expelled in 1555 by the Ottomans led by Salah Rais Pasha.
According to other sources, Abdel Aziz's son Sidi San Abderhamen (master of the Beni Abbes Kala and founder of the Zaouia and descendant of Idrissids ) made its submission to the Spaniards. He was opposed to Zwawas (allied to the kingdom Koukou ) in the past . Pedro Navarro built Fort Moussa east of Bejaia .
Modern Era
Ottoman Period (1515-1830)
Regency of Algiers (1515-1830)
Selim I installed the Regency Period in 1515.
1st version
Selim I installed the Regency Period in 1515.
At that time the territory of today's Algeria was greatly divided. South of the sultanate was Touggourt independent since 1414, while in the north-west region was ruled by Zianides , except the city of Oran what was under Spanish rule since 1509. The Ottoman conquest of Algiers region began in 1518, and was successively ruled on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, by beylerbeys (governors general) from 1518 to 1587, the pasha from 1587 to 1659 of 1659 of agas deys to 1671 and from 1671 to 1830.
The Constantine region, conquered in 1525, took a relative administrative autonomy from Algiers in 1567 and was administered by Beys until the French conquest October 13, 1837. Side of Oran, the province was annexed to the Ottoman Empire from 1708 to 1732, then from 1792. Finally, a Tuareg confederation, the Kel Ahaggar , was formed in the Algerian Sahara in 1750, came under French sovereignty in 1903 and was eliminated by Algeria in 1977.
The second version of the Ottoman conquest of Algiers region began in 1518, and was successively ruled on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, by beylerbeys (governors general) from 1518 to 1587, the pasha from 1587 to 1659 of agas from 1659 to 1671 and from 1671 to 1830 deys.
In principle, the authority of the Ottoman spread throughout the regency of Algiers, that is to say the north of Algeria today. But in reality it varies over time and regions concerned. Well as mountainous regions or in Kabylia and Aures came in numerous times in revolt against the Ottoman authority. To the east of Algeria in the Aures , several tribes unite and trigger fights against the Ottomans. But several factional infighting Chaouis ignite in the mountainous areas of the Aures. The Ouled Daoud and several tribes prevent the Ottomans from entering their territories . Saleh Bey tried unsuccessfully to submit them by leading an expedition against them . In sum, the great unity of Chabias divides, it produces several independent tribes against the Ottomans between the seventeenth century and the eighteenth century .
The kingdom of Koukou lasted for two centuries . It was founded in the sixteenth century by Belkadi Ahmed , a leader Kabyle which helped drive the Spaniards from Bejaia with the help of the Turks at sea. Its capital is Ghabra Ait. In 1520 , Khayr ad-Din Barbarossa decides to conduct an expedition against Ahmed Belkadi. The battle will take place in the plain of Issers. The victory of the Kabyle is unequivocal and it is very likely that Khayr ad-Din Barbarossa will survive having fled at the right time. Victorious, Ahmed Belkadi takes possession of Algiers and reign without challenge until 1527 , when Khayr ad-Din Barbarossa defeated him and restored his authority in Algiers with the support Abd-el-Aziz, head of the Beni Abbas Kabyle and rival Belkadi In 1823 the Beni Abbas Lower Kabylie went into revolt against the authority of the Regency and cut the voice communications between Algiers and Constantine. Only after several months of fighting that the Agha Yahya could negotiate the submission of the tribes revolted
Era of beylerbeys (1515-1587)
This period is especially marked by the struggle of Charles V against Suleiman and his vassal Barbarossa. Charles V was able to take Tunis but failed to Algiers on several occasions, the attack on Algiers in 1541. During this period, the three kingdoms of Hassan Pasha or "Hassan Barbarossa, son of the founder of the regency were marked by armed interventions in Morocco and attempted repeatedly to Oran , with the famous episode, the victory over the Count Alcaudete front of Mostaganem and the decisive help of the artillery of the State of Algiers to Saadian at the Battle of El Oued Makhazine. As for Ali Euldj or "Ali el Farthing," he said Tunis to Spain in 1574, after participating in the Siege of Malta and have saved the honor of the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto , where he commanded the left wing The fleet of Algiers, in addition, in its interest, for money, and religious fervor, it provides human and material assistance to the Moriscos of Spain , during their insurrection in Andalusia . Both beylerbeys eventually leading admirals of the Ottoman fleet.
Era of Pasha (1587-1659)
Time Agha (1659-1671)
Era of Deys (1671-1830)
Around 1600 , the militia of Turkish Janissaries who lived in Algiers , which was formerly under the authority of a pasha sent to Constantinople , the Sultan received permission to give a dey , to serve in support its claims against the pashas Governors.
It was during this period that definitively stabilize the eastern and western borders of the Regency, following victories over the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail in 1694. Moulay Ismail , who sometimes came to ravage the western Algerian territory, prompted the Dey Chabane to declare war on its neighbor. The Algerians were turned to that effect on the border where they met the enemy, and despite the inferiority of their numbers, repulsed Moulay Ismail to Fez , the armistice was signed at the request of the Sultan who with his hands tied , kissed the ground three times before the Dey Sha'ban and said kneeling: "You are the knife and my flesh that you can cut." Chaaban did not chop into pieces the King of Morocco, but he imposed such harsh conditions he was unable to deliver. After such a successful expedition, Shaaban ran the same year his forces against Tunis, which he eventually seize after several assaults. He imposed a heavy ransom to the people, left them for Governor Hamed-ben-Chouquer, one of his favorites, and returned to Algiers with rich spoils. But no sooner had he left Tunis, that drove people ben Hamed Chouquer. In 1702, the Bey of Tunis and the Sultan of Morocco could not pay tribute to him in 1694, agreed to simultaneously invade the Regency, the Bey of Tunis was first defeated, then the Moroccan Sharif routed in the west by the Algerian Dey Hadj Mustapha who was the trophy horse Moulay Ismail richly caparisoned, it was subsequently offered to the king of France Louis XIV , by the Ambassador of Algeria The power of these leaders grew rapidly, and finally Baba-Ali , elected in 1710 , deposed the pasha, and obtained the Sultan Ahmet III nomination of the regency. As their elective power was the deys remained always thank you to the Janissaries, who brought them up or drop them at will: we saw six installed and murdered the same day ( 1732 ). Baba-Muhammad had only the privilege of reigning 25 years ( 1760 - 1791 ). The last Dey of Algiers, Hussein reigned for 12 years at the French conquest in 1830.
Meanwhile, the Western powers seek every means to get rid of the predatory marine and enslavement of their citizens, ongoing problem in the early nineteenth century. Expeditions against Algiers after another: the 1815 American expedition , expedition with British Dutch Lord Exmouth in 1816. These specific operations have some effect (especially the English expedition can deliver many slaves), but the parade resumed once the Western left. The French conquest of Algeria is a result of these expeditions with, at least in part, the same reasons (to stop the parade), plus a desire for conquest.
Geographical areas not controlled by the Ottoman Algiers from 1515 to 1830
The Ottomans were unable to extend their authority to the Saharan regions. The Sahara was the main axis of trade between Africa and northern black
The relationship between Saadi and Ottomans deteriorates, it leads Ahmad al-Mansur to control Gourara and Twat (region) . Then Mulay M'hammed takes the country from Gourara with the help of local tribes. Subsequently, he links Tlemcen , Laghouat and several western cities and the Sahara to its authority . And it declares independence. But then, Tlemcen and several cities were connected with the regency of Algiers. Upon arrival of the power of the Alawi , they drop out are regions of the Sahara Gourara Twat, etc.. Then the local emirs are responsible for the governance of their territories. The tax was levied by the bosses sent by Alawites, and who would not pay was taken as a slave .
Finally in the extreme south, Tuareg confederation, the Kel Ahaggar , was formed in the Algerian Sahara to the year 1750.
French colonization (1830-1962)
Conquest of Algeria: 1830-1871
This period marks the end of Ottoman rule and the beginning of French rule. First appointed French possessions in North Africa, that Marshal Soult call Algeria in 1839 , these territories will officially known as Algeria, October 14, 1839 .
The Algerian population is estimated between 1 and 3 million people before the French conquest of 1830 . According to the book Colonize, exterminate the historian Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison :
"The toll of the war, almost uninterrupted between 1830 and 1872 , highlights the extreme violence he used to take measure of the massacres and destruction committed by the army in Africa. In the space of forty - two years, the total population of Algeria is in effect from 3 million to about 2,125,000 according to some estimates, a loss of 875,000 people, mostly civilians . "
Many observers agree that the conquest of Algeria has caused the disappearance of nearly one third of the Algerian population or increase with western medicine brought by the French . Unusual methods were used, such as enfumades , massacres of prisoners and civilians, the raids, destruction of crops and villages - commonly used by the French military . A large number of buildings were destroyed in this goal to erase the cultural identity and worship and in the context of "adjustments." In a report sent to Napoleon III , a French general summed up the determination of the French administration to fight the Algerian cultural institutions, saying: "We are required to create barriers to Muslim schools ... every time we can ... In other words, our goal must be to destroy the Algerian people materially and morally " . One can cite the 349 zaouias destroyed , or architectural masterpieces represented by the mosque Agadir founded by Idriss in 790 and destroyed in 1845 which was one of the first mosques in the Maghreb and Palace of the rulers Zianides to Tlemcen .
Daniel Lefebvre , in his book To finish with repentance colonial , disputes the casualty figures of the conquest in particular arguing that the difference in population between 1830 and 1872 , which is about 875 000 people, would be partly due to the fact that 1861 to 1872 there were several health crises: the invasions of locusts in 1866 and 1868 and a very cold winter ( 1867 - 1868 ) causing a severe famine followed by epidemics ( cholera in particular). But according to Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison , the colonization of Algeria was well reflected in the extermination of one third of the population, whose causes are multiple, massacres, deportations, famines or epidemics, but closely linked them.
Guy de Maupassant wrote in the Sun (1884), an account of his travels in Algeria in particular land, speaking of the indigenous population: "It is also certain that the original population will gradually disappear, there is no doubt that this loss will be very useful Algeria, but it is shocking that it takes place under conditions in which it is accomplished. "
Installation of European settlers
The fall of Napoleon III in 1870 was greeted with relief . The European community and the Muslim community living together but not mixed, and the laws of the Third Republic only increase the division between more and more French in Algeria and other French subjects governed by a code specific. Cremieux decree giving the Jews equal status Algerians that the French in Algeria divides people because Muslims did not, initially, to the status of French citizens, mainly because of their culture and religion. Later, we will grant French citizenship to Muslims who specifically requested.
About 7 million hectares of arable land, settlement took a century of 2.9 million hectares - which were, also, land of better quality. This colonization drove hundreds of thousands of peasants, dispossessed, and became a wandering army of rural homelessness.
Under Charles X (1830)
In undertaking this expedition, Charles X seeks both to improve its image in skirmishes against the dey The case of the range (1827) The origin of the final quarrel between France and the Regency of Algiers dates back to the Executive. Jewish merchants of Livorno , installed in Algiers in mid-eighteenth century, and Busnach Bacri, then shipped large quantities of grain to feed the troops engaged with Bonaparte (later Napoleon I ) in the Italian campaign. Bonaparte refuses to pay the bill he considers excessive. In 1820 , Louis XVIII sponge-half of the debts of the Directory. The Dey, Bacri creditor for 250,000 francs, France requires the payment of the sum to merchants Leghorn. As he thinks that France does not intend to repay the loan, he is already at odds with the consul. But a far more serious matter is the dey beside himself: France has granted a commercial warehouse at La Calle, and through his representative Deval, undertook not to fortify it. However, it has strengthened the warehouse when dey realized this and asked that a written explanation to the French government was no answer, he merely verbally ask for explanations to the consul of France, which elects the party to take up. That's when the dey and angrily gestured contemptuously against the consul of France through its maggot hunting. On 30 April 1827 in Algiers, the Dey blow with her fan Consul of France, Deval. The episode involves the diplomatic rupture with France. The government then decided to restore to invade Algeria and punish the Dey for his "insolence". The French consul and residents set sail for France. The Minister of War, Clermont-Tonnerre , offers a military expedition. The chairman, Villele , and dolphin object. A blockade of Algiers, inefficient, is decided: the draft of the French ships are forced to stay away from the coast that may come closer pilots Barbary. The Cabinet decided to organize an expedition in Algeria on January 31 1830. At Toulon the Duperr admiral took command of an armada of 103 warships and 572 merchant ships and headed for Algiers . On 14 June morning the Marshal Bourmont landed at Sidi Ferruch with 37 500 men . June 19, at the Battle of Staoueli , French troops hold the edge over the Ottoman army. On 5 July, the French occupied Algiers and the same day, Hussein Dey signs the surrender . Sections 2 and 3 of the Convention allow Hussein to keep his personal property and his exile to the place of his choice . The state coffers will be looted . He left the country with his family aboard a French ship bound for an Italian port. July 11, 2500 Janissaries of Algiers were expelled for Asia Minor. After 313 years, the Ottomans abandoned the regency administration and therefore they have ruled the country since 1517. In October, the first battalions of Zouaves are established. France accounts for all the lands Belik (Turkish settlers), and are created the first units of Spahis. December 1, Louis-Philippe called the Duke of Rovigo head of High Command in Algeria. It succeeds in capturing Bone and actively implements the settlement. The shocking violence of his actions until he was recalled in 1833. He died June 2 of that year. (...) Feb. 26: Cease-fire between the general Desmichels and Emir Abd El-Kader ( Desmichels Treaty ). Mostafa Ben Smail refuses to recognize the authority of Abd El-Kader. The latter, with the help of his French allies, is victorious Mostafa Ben Smail July 13 Surrender of Abd El-Kader (1847) On February 22 Bugeaud is the new Governor General of Algeria. On August 23, 1841 Sheikh el Kadiri, during a meeting at Cairo , published a fatwa (decision complies with the principles of the Sunna and the Quran ) which states that the tribes are allowed not to obey Abd El-Kader , and it is foolish to make war on Christians, as long as they let the Muslims freely practice their religion. On 16 May 1843 the Duke of Aumale attacks smala Abd El Kader making many prisoners who were exiled. On 1 February 1844 , France created the Arab offices in order to establish contact with the indigenous population. On August 14, 1844 General Bugeaud's army crushed the Sultan of Morocco to the Battle of Isly. The Moroccan army withdrew in the direction of Taza. The sultan then undertakes to prohibit its territory Adb el-Kader in dealing with France. On September 23 the troops of Abd El Kader emerge victorious at the Battle of Sidi Brahim hired by Colonel Montagnac. French survivors held for three days in the Marabout of Sidi Brahim. This battle is the battle of reference for hunters on foot. In December 1847 Abd El Kader surrenders to spahis (nomadic steppe regions of Algeria) Colonel Yusuf. Placed under house arrest for four years in France, the emir was released by Napoleon III , visited several cities in the metropolis before reaching Damascus and lives the rest of his life in Syria. On 11 December 1848 the Constitution of 1848 proclaims in Algeria an integral part of French territory. Bone , Oran and Algiers became the prefectures of three French departments ( Algiers , Oran and Constantine ). Muslims and Jews of Algeria became "French subjects" in the indigenous regime. The territory of the former Regency of Algiers is officially annexed by France, but the region of Kabylia , which does not recognize the authority of the Emir Abdelkader, and therefore its bid to France in 1847, still holds. The French army in Africa then control the entire north-western Algeria. The successes of the French army on the resistance of Abd el-Kader, strengthen French confidence, and allow to declare, after discussion, the conquest of Kabylia, which must take place after the Crimean War (1853 -1856) who moves a part of French troops. Napoleon III wanted to have a force sufficient for sustainable conquest of Kabylia. Between 1849 and 1852 , French rule extends to the Petite Kabylie. In July 1857 , after a quick campaign, all the tribes in Kabylie travel, capturing the marabout Lalla Fatma N'Soumer puts an end to resistance. In March 1871, taking advantage of the weakening of colonial power after the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), part of the Kabylie rises. The French army put an end to the Rebellion Mokrani by an operation of "pacification" of insurgents were deported: the Kabyle Pacific. Napoleon III tried to transform the conquest of a 'Arab kingdom' associated with France and which he himself would be the sovereign: the settlers . Napoleon III decided to visit Algeria. This tour lasts six weeks, he was received everywhere with enthusiasm: In the whole of Algeria, settlers repeating a hundred times a day: "The Emperor came, he saw, we are saved. The dead themselves, who died in the struggle of man against a civilized wilderness, against the pestilential miasma swamp and the dead to the living together again: "Welcome, Caesar, the dead salute you. "It is the amazement of the settlers that Senatufconfultum, ownership of the land they occupy has been devoted to indigenous tribes, and commission enforcement In 1865 , 225,000 settlers, French or European have about 700 000 hectares . But colonization 14 July 1865, a senatus-consult (a law) allows Muslims to acquire French citizenship by escaping individual Koranic profit status of French civil law, but it remains theoretical since French citizenship was more difficult given to a native Algerian yet holds French nationality to a foreigner. On 27 December 1866 , a decree established municipal councils elected by four separate college French, Muslim, Jewish and European foreigners, the French have two thirds of the seats in the "full-function joint," the deputy mayors of natives. Algeria, under French occupation, like the rest of Africa, has expanded its revenue from 2.2 billion in 1870 to 6.4 in 1913 . The advent of the Third Republic was much turmoil in Algeria, including civil and military. The Third Republic pursued a policy of assimilation: francization names, suppression of Muslim customs. Decree No. 137, the Naturalization Indigenous Muslims and foreigners living in Algeria. October 24, 1870 , by decree Cremieux , the 37,000 Jews of Algeria pass status of French subjects (native) to the status of French citizens. This status is also granted to all foreign settlers from European strains ( Spain , Italy , Malta , Germany , etc..). This decree was promulgated at Tours by the Government of National Defence. Its author is the Minister of Justice, Isaac Adolphe Cremieux , Jewish lawyer. This decree is felt by the indigenous Algerians Revolts of 1871 Following orders, the defeat of France in Europe in the Franco-Prussian War, the struggle between settlers and military power and because of the miserable condition of the natives favored by several years of drought and plagues, the last major revolt in Algeria took place in 1871. It begins in January with the case of Spahi worsens in March with the entry into dissent Mohamed El Mokrani , who then appealed to Sheikh El Haddad , the great master of the Brotherhood of Rahmaniya. The revolt fails and repression is organized by the French to "pacify" the Kabylie. Following an order was given by the army to send them to France, Spahis are raised in late January 1871 and Moudjebeur Guettar Ain in eastern Algerian border with Tunisia Code of rights of citizenship (1881) The Code of rights of citizenship is adopted June 28 1881 : This code distinguished between two categories of citizens: French citizens (ethnic metropolitan) and French subjects, that is to say, the black Africans, Malagasy, Algerians , West Indians, Melanesians, and so on. French subjects submitted to the Code of rights of citizenship were deprived of most of their freedom and their political rights they retained civilly their personal status, religious origin or customary. From 1881 , especially in Kabylia , the Code of Indigenous impose a forced Arabization of surnames to local populations who until then were still some Latin-sounding names. The surnames of Algerians today are not those of their ancestors in a ratio of more than three-quarters . The Code was subject to all sorts of prohibitions which were crimes punishable by imprisonment or deportation. After the Act of 7 May 1946 (Act Lamine Gueye) abolishing the Code of Indigenous, Aboriginal ( New Caledonia , Madagascar , Algeria , etc..) could again move freely, day and night, and collect the right where they wanted to reside and work freely. However, the French authorities managed to perpetuate the Code indigenous to Algeria to independence ( in 1962 maintaining the status of Muslims and applying for example the principle of collective responsibility was to punish an entire village for the infringement of one of its members. In 1889 , a law grants French citizenship to 21 years of European foreign born in Algeria. From 1896 , the administration of Algeria directly to the Ministry of Interior. In 1898 , held several European anti-Jewish. From 1871 to 1898 the colonists acquire one million hectares, whereas 1830 to 1870 , they had acquired 481,000 . Algeria has a new status in 1900 : it has a special budget, a Governor General who has all the civil and military powers . The electoral system ensures that the European balance. In 1912, Manifesto Young Algerians. In the south, taking Laghouat and Touggourt , submission of the Beni M'zab Mzab (1852) and that of Souf, push the boundaries of Algeria to the great desert , autonomous territory, not subject to the Ottomans , and until then controlled by a confederation of nomadic tribes Tuareg , the Kel Ahaggar. Following the Battle of Tit , Lieutenant Guillo Lohan receives the bid by France of Kel Ahaggar Kel Ahaggar in November 1902, in the Hoggar . The law of December 1905 separation of Church and State was not applied in Algeria for worship Muslim imams and muftis officials were required to speak the official voice First World War (1914-1918) To cope with the casualties of World War I, France mobilized the inhabitants of the French departments of Algeria: Muslims, Jews & Europeans. According to Gilbert Meynier , this recruitment was relatively easy thanks to the paternalism of officers and a general indifference in spite of some revolts in 1914 and 1917: the second was perhaps inspired by the call of the Turks . During the First World War , the infantry and spahis Muslims fought with their brothers in arms Zouaves (and sometimes sharpshooters) and European Jews in Algeria. The Algerians have left 26,000 of them on the battlefields of East and West of the First World War . The Emir Khaled attend the First World War alongside the French . Charles Jonnart creates several reforms in favor of Algerian Muslims who are adopted under the Act of 4 February 1919 , also called "law Jonnart. In 1930 , events of the centenary of the capture of Algiers are seen as a provocation by the people Mobilization for the "phony war" (1939-1940) In Algeria, conscription hired about as many Muslims as Europeans Algerians in Algeria (Blackfoot) in the French Army Under the French State (1940-1942) The Battle of Mers el-Kebir means the attack on 3 July 1940 the British navy against a French naval squadron anchored in the naval base of Mers el-Kebir (Oran Gulf). There were 1380 deaths. The United Kingdom , then only against Germany, feared that the armistice signed by the French government a few days ago does this fall into the hands of fleet Hitler. The status of Jews is applied to the Jews of Algeria, Cremieux Decree was abolished in 1940 and finally restored in 1944. After the coup of November 8, 1942 in Algiers , which involves the Jews of Algeria, and as part of Operation Torch (landings of the Anglo-Americans to Oran , Arzew , Algiers and Bone ) Many Algerians were involved in the Allied forces in the French army of liberation fronts and engaged on Italian and French ( Provence landing ). Unlike in Algiers, Oran Vichy troops are fighting the Allies. At the landing of the operation Reservist and airdrops, many Anglo-Americans are killed before authorities Oran not capitulate. On 8 November 1942 , following the Anglo-American invasion of Algeria, which was without the help of Free France, from Brazzaville ( Congo ) General de Gaulle launched an Appeal to the French in North Africa broadcast on the BBC (broadcast & Honour Fatherland). It is intended for settlers and their application to work with the Anglo-Americans that France is recognized among the winners (and not the vanquished, despite the armistice and collaboration) at the end of the war : French leaders, soldiers, sailors, airmen, civil servants, French settlers in North Africa, stand up now! Help our Allies! Join them unreservedly. France is fighting you conjure. Do not worry about the names or formulas. Only one thing matters: the salvation of the fatherland! All those who have the courage to stand upright, despite the enemy and treason, are approved in advance, welcomed, cheered by all the French Affairs. Despise the cries of the traitors who would persuade you that our allies want to take them to our Empire. Come! Here is the big moment! The hour of good sense and courage. Everywhere the enemy staggers and bends. French North Africa! we returned by you online, from one end to another of the Mediterranean, and now the war was won thanks to France! General Henri Giraud makes the civilian and military command in Algeria. Algerians are remobilized to continue the war alongside the Allies. The anthem of the African Army is the version 1943 of Africans singing. Muslim side, the future presidents of Algeria Ahmed Ben Bella and Mohammed Boudiaf , committed volunteers and decorated. Mostefa Ben Boulaid , one of those responsible for attacks in the Toussaint Rouge (1954), distinguished himself during the campaign Italy (1944) which earned him the Military Medal and Croix de Guerre. Krim Belkacem is found also mobilized in 1943 in the 1st Regiment of Algerian infantry where he was promoted to corporal. In contrast, during the German Occupation (1940-1944), hundreds of Muslim North Africans living in France were engaged in the French Militia (Vichy), representing the Legion in North Africa. While the European side, the future general coup of the OAS , Edmond Jouhaud taken prisoner in 1940, escaped and joined the Resistance under the command of General Revers, chief of the United Resistance Army (ORA) and that the future Marshal of France , Alphonse Juin , also taken prisoner in France, was interned at the fortress of Knigstein is then released and given command of the Vichy forces in North Africa. Following the invasion of the Free Zone by Germans in November 1942 , General Juin joined the Allies, he was appointed commander of French forces for the campaigns of Tunisia (1942-1943) and Italy (1944 ). The resistant Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle member of Freikorps Africa is part of the conspiracy against the Vichy Admiral Francois Darlan (commander in chief in Algeria) in Algiers and murdered, he was arrested and executed the same year. "Manifesto of the Algerian people" by Ferhat Abbas in 1943. On 8 May 1945 , while World War II ended in Europe , Algeria, Algerian nationalist demonstrations followed lynchings Europeans are repressed by the French army in Setif and Guelma (eastern Algeria), there were 103 Europeans killed and between 10,000 and 45,000 Algerians Under the Fourth Republic (1946-1958) The parliamentary elections of 1946 were a success for the Democratic Union of Algerian manifesto (UDMA) Ferhat Abbas, his party won eleven of thirteen seats reserved for the Algeria National Assembly of the Algerian Assembly: by intimidation, the army forced the people to vote, ballot boxes are filled in advance, and those most rebels are not called. Thirty-six of the 59 candidates MTLD stopped. Hocine Ait Ahmed organized in March 1949 , theft of mail Oran their reports 3.07 million francs. This money will be the beginning of the war chest of the FLN. The Indochina War (1946-1954) absorbs the senior military and combat is voluntary and regular soldiers, legionaries and colonial troops including 35,000 Mughrabi (Moroccan & Algerian) accounting for one fourth of complement of the expeditionary force . At the battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954), are present the first regiment of Algerian infantry , 3rd Algerian infantry regiment and the 7th Regiment of Algerian infantry . French troops in Algeria before the outbreak of the war in Algeria is low: in 1948 40,000 men, 48,300 to 1 June 1954, 81,145 on 1 January 1955. Ben Badis after Bashir Yelles In the early twentieth century , many Algerian leaders claim the right to equality or independence. Several parties will be created and several pamphlets are written to defend the rights of Algerians. Several Algerian thinkers will vilify the most important personalities of the French colonial regime. Most of the figures of Algerian movement will be monitored closely by the French police, others will be exiled to other countries as has been the Emir Khalid El-Hassan bin al-Hashemi in Egypt and then Syria. Messali Hajj , Malek Bennabi , Mohamed Hamouda Bensa , Saleh Bensi Ben Badis , Mohamed Bachir El Ibrahimi , El Ouartilani Fodil , Larbi Tebessa , Ferhat Abbas , Omar Ouzeggane, etc.. All will differ between them on the Algerian question, causing the emergence of several associations and Algerian parties: the Reform Party or movement for equality, Algerian Muslim Scholars Association , an association of North African Star , the party People's Party Algeria , Friends of the Manifesto of Liberties, the Algerian Communist Party , etc.. On May 8, 1945 held demonstrations in several cities of Algerians in the East (Setif and Constantine), who were able to recall their nationalist claims, concomitantly with the jubilation of victory. At Setif , after clashes between police and nationalists, the demonstration turns into riots and anger of the demonstrators turned against the "French": 27 Europeans were murdered (103 die in the following days). The repression of the French army's brutal. Officially it is 1500 deaths among the indigenous figure potentially underestimated and probably closer to 20 000 to 30 000 according to historian Benjamin Stora. The Algerian People's Party (PPP) estimates that there were 45 000 deaths . By radicalization they generated in the Algerian nationalist circles, some historians consider these massacres as the true beginning of the war in Algeria . Following the death of Ben Badis in 1940 and imprisonment of Messali Hajj and the prohibition of the Algerian People's Party , the party Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties claims the status of equality or independence Algerians in 1948. Also, the Association of Algerian Muslim Scholars was prohibited. Then, the Special Organization (Algeria) appears and it aims to collect weapons to fight. Belouizdad Mohamed was the first head of the clandestine organization. Then, Hocine Ait Ahmed is the head of the Organization and continues to work to the purchase of arms. The position of Oran is attacked by members of the OS. Ahmed Ben Bella takes the place of Hocine Ait Ahmed in 1949. The organization's plan is unveiled and the French authorities arrested several members in 1950. The Movement for the triumph of democratic freedoms denied any relationship with the Special Organization to block the arrests. The CRUA was founded in March 1954. It will organize the armed struggle. The party of the Algerian National Movement was founded in July 1954 by Messale . The National Liberation Front (Algeria) succeeds him in October 1954 by the branch of CRUA (Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action). The National Liberation Front (Algeria) and the Algerian National Movement will be rivals for control of the revolution. At independence, hundreds of fighters of the Algerian National Movement Messali Hajj will be killed by their rivals of the FLN . Messali Hajj will be released from prison in 1958 and will be assigned to house arrest in France. The term "Algerian Revolution" is used in Algeria to describe what France calls the "war of Algeria" (officially called and events in Algeria until 1999). A broad movement born of revolt over the years. The Algerian connection, without the right policy, France becomes a citizen French by the Act of September 20, 1947 , . The action will come from the army CRUA ( Mohammed Boudiaf , Mostefa Ben Boulaid , etc.). The outbreak of the Algerian revolution was decided in the Casbah of Algiers and Batna under the chairmanship of Batnen Mostefa Ben Boulaid in the meeting of 22 executives of the Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action (CRUA) , . The CRUA will become the National Liberation Front (FLN). The six leaders of the FLN who decide the "revolution" on November 1, 1954 are: Rabah Bitat , Mostefa Ben Boulaid , Didouche Mourad , Mohamed Boudiaf , Belkacem Krim and Larbi Ben M'Hidi. The Declaration of 1 November 1954 is transmitted by radio from Tunis. On the night of 1 November 1954 , the barracks of the city of Batna is attacked by the mujahideen. This night will be called by the French historians ( Toussaint red ). A boss and two French teachers will be slaughtered on the road to Biskra and Arris , there will be two different versions of events. Attacks are recorded in the three districts Batna , Biskra , Khenchela and the rest of the country. Francois Mitterrand will declare that "Algeria is France ". And it triggers the repression in the Aures. Initially, there were just 500 men of the NLA National Liberation Army. After a few months they will be more than 15 000 men to challenge French authority , . 100 000 French soldiers are serving in the Aures mountains and later they will be more than 400 000 in Algeria. General Cherriere gives the order to operate the sweep of the Aures. He believes winning, but he will suffer a big defeat . The massacre of Skikda (ex philippevillois or Skikda ), the death of hundreds of Algerian demonstrators, took place from 20 to 26 August 1955. The same year, the UN General Assembly, the inclusion of the Algerian case is the order of the day. Mostefa Ben Boulaid , Zighoud Youcef , were killed. Several leaders were imprisoned . French intellectuals will help the NLF . Maurice Audin was tortured and killed by the French . Frantz Fanon agrees with the Algerian resistance and has contacts with some officers of the ALN (Army of Liberation national) and with the political leadership of the FLN, Abane Ramdane and Benyoucef Benkhedda in particular. He resigned from chief physician of the hospital in Blida -Joinville in November 1956 to Governor Robert Lacoste , and is expelled from Algeria in January 1957. Albert Camus , a native of Algeria, was an advocate of Algerians in the 1940s, before refusing to take a stand for independence with his famous phrase pronounced at Stockholm in 1957: "If I had to choose between justice and my mother, I still choose my mother." From 1956 , Jean-Paul Sartre and the journal Les Temps Modernes take sides against the idea of a French Algeria and support the desire for independence of the Algerian people. Sartre speaks out against torture , demanding freedom for the peoples to decide their fate, analyzes the violence as gangrene, a product of colonialism . In 1960 , during the trial networks of support to the FLN, he said "carrier bag" FLN . This position is not without danger, his apartment will be plastic storage twice by the OAS and Modern Times entered five times. After conviction of Larbi Ben M'Hidi and after the completion of the Congress Soummam , FLN includes the leaders of the Algerian national movement (NAM). Several Algerian parties adhere to the cause of the NLF National Liberation Front (FLN) and the French Army held the same language ("Those who are not with us are against us" . The war broke out between the heads Kabyle ( Krim Belkacem , Ouamrane, etc.) and heads chaouis and also between the heads of chaouis Aures and heads of chaouis Nemenchas . Abdelhai Leghrour Abbes and will be sentenced to death by supporters of the Congress of Soummam and the Committee of Coordination and Execution (CCE). There will also be a conflict between people of southern Algeria and the Kabyle leaders . The Tunisia will be the scene of confrontation between different leaders. President Bourguiba was to intervene to pacify things. The Aures, the Constantine, western Algeria, Kabylia, etc.. Will be the most sensitive areas of strategic perspective and logistique.Les two countries (Morocco and Tunisia) are under protectorate franais.Ils will host the two armies of the NLA to frontires.Plusieurs leaders of the FLN as Ferhat Abbas will challenge their roles. The French army had built the barrier "death", 320 km long, 7,000 volts, a checkpoint every 15 miles, thousands of landmines , etc.. to prevent the passage of arms in the Aures and throughout eastern Algeria. But the elements of the NLA ( National Liberation Army ) will thwart any French military strategy. The Algerian population of cities will be under the control of the Algerian Liberation Army. The Battle of Algiers will be one of the international press and internally. The conflict is brought to the United Nations. Several strikes and demonstrations are organized by the FLN. Colonel Amir Ait Hamouda will be a massacre in the Aures involved in trying to unify areas of the Aures and put the weapons in Kabylie . The Aures was the crossing point of arms into the interior. Colonel Amir Ait Hamouda succeed in passing the arms through the border of Tunisia and Algeria. It crosses the Aures to join the Kabylie. Twenty chaouis will be the journey, but in the end they will abandon the troops of Colonel Amir to return to the Aures. Krim Belkacem wanted to control the Aures region to establish a union of forces. And the men of Ben Bella and Abdelhafid Boussouf , also wanted a foothold in the Aures. Meanwhile, France experienced an internal crisis until the arrival to power of General Charles de Gaulle because of the situation in Algeria. The Ultras of Europe want to keep Algeria French. The French Army decides to create the prohibited areas under the control of SAS (specialized administrative sections) and starts a fight against Djounoudes (guerrillas) and the local population in towns, villages, and douars in all territories sensitive to the FLN The massive bombings, killings, massacres, torture, etc.. all acts of crime (torture during the war in Algeria) were used in this war. Several attacks will be organized by the NLA in the towns and villages in prohibited areas and in mountainous areas of the Aures. The CEC ( Coordinating Committee and implementation ) shows the number of its members grow and decided to stay the course on military targets and the primacy of the interior from outside. A major crisis is developing among members of the Coordinating Committee and implementation. According to Yves Courrire , Abane Ramdane severely opposed to the military. He chose to go underground, appoint a man of the Aures, Ali Hajj, to overturn the CEC to Tunis. But Abane Ramdane be sentenced to prison in Morocco by the CEC. Later he is killed in Morocco, but the FLN souces say he was killed in a clash against the French Army. General Charles de Gaulle as head of the French power incurs a struggle against the elements of the Algerian National Liberation Army and he brings much-needed reforms to give all rights to Algerians. The French Army removed almost all networks of the National Liberation Army in Kabylia and in some sensitive areas during the operation Binoculars. Colonels Amir Ait Hamouda and Si el Haoues are killed in a clash with elements of the French Army. The FLN called the elements of his army to take until the end. The Delegation of the main leaders of the FLN ( Mohamed Khider , Mostefa Lacheraf , Hocine Ait Ahmed , Mohamed Boudiaf and Ahmed Ben Bella ) is stopped, following the hijacking, 22 October 1956 by the French army, its civilian aircraft Moroccan between Rabat and Tunis , in the direction of Cairo ( Egypt ) . In 1959 , Messali Hajj released from prison, he was assigned to house arrest in France . The Algerians in France are organizing bombings and demonstrations in France in favor of the FLN 1960 , week barricades at Algiers killed 22 people and hundreds of Algerian prisoners. General de Gaulle announces a referendum for the independence of Algeria. The Algerians are required to vote. Some French generals are rebelling against the authority of General de Gaulle (the Algiers Putsch (1958) and Generals putsch in April 1961). General de Gaulle takes in hand the destiny of France, he announced the holding of a referendum and calls on the FNL to the peace of the brave. Meanwhile, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Algeria is proclaimed. Farhat Abbas French declined the invitation. Colonel Houari Boumedienne was then leader of the National Liberation Army. In 1960, the UN announced the right to self-determination of the Algerian people. The French side holding talks with the Provisional Government of the Republic of Algeria. Several meetings outside the country will lead to the Evian agreements. Colonel Houari Boumedienne refused the Blackfoot remain in Algeria. 17 October 1961, the black night begins at Paris , also called the Battle of Paris ( Massacre of 17 October 1961 ). Many Algerians are killed in France during a demonstration of the FLN. There will be thousands of arrests among Algerians during the night. This fact occurs as a result of the introduction of curfews for Algerians in Paris in the wake of the killing of 21 French police officers by the FLN. In Algiers, the Algerian people out into the streets to express their joy of independence. There will be many dead and wounded by the French police . A portion of the population of Algeria opposed the Algerian Revolution. The major figures of this movement anti-independence are bachaga Boualam Said (Muslim community) and General Edmond Jouhaud and Jean-Jacques Susini (European Community). The coming to power of General de Gaulle after May 13, 1958 had strengthened the belief in a possible future for French Algeria. But the successive announcements of the rapid evolution of Algerian politics of General de Gaulle instill doubt and rebellion and finally a form of despair among supporters of French Algeria . Highlights of the period are the Referendum on self-determination in Algeria (January 1961) , failure of coup in Algiers (April 1961) , the cease-fire (March 1962), the stages leading Algeria in a spiral of reciprocal violence. The OAS ( Secret Army Organization ), anti-independence underground organization composed of military and civilian (Algeria and mainland France), was refounded in early May 1961 in Algiers and launched into action "Pay and spectacular" ( Raoul Salan), ie robbery, theft of weapons, assault of police, secret agents , mobile police . Then after 19 March 1962, the OAS in Algeria uses terrorist methods also by organizing attacks against Algerians and Europeans who were for independence. Meanwhile, the FLN intensifies indiscriminate attacks (during the unilateral ceasefire from May to August 1961) and decided to focus more from the OAS in November 1961 . The beginning of 1962 saw an unprecedented escalation of terrorism, the number of attacks beyond the OAS in mid-January, those of the FLN that the attacks stop sometime around March 19, 1962, to quote selectively cons members of the OAS, then quickly against any European, whatever it is, especially in the form of kidnapping . But violence is also an aspect of Franco-French civil war. European district of Bab el Oued in between March 23, 1962 uprising and ensuing battle between European settlers and anti-independence metropolitan conscripts. To break the blockade of Bab el Oued, OAS leaflets calling on civilians to come out and show unarmed and wearing a French flag. A dam is forced and the 4th Regiment of sharpshooters shot the procession killing and wounding scores of demonstrators. With the approach of self-determination referendum, the OAS commandos launched Operation 1830, before leaving Algeria, in June, this is to give back to Algeria are pre-colonial state by practicing the policy of the scorched earth to remove all traces of the French presence in this port of Oran is on fire and the library of the University of Algiers was destroyed by fire . This context leads one million French ( Blackfoot , the Harkis , the Jews , etc..) to leave Algeria within a few months, mainly from April to June 1962. A million returning refugees in Algeria Algeria . As for the settlers in the strict sense (ie in the sense commonly used in Algeria at the time, owner-farmer), their departure is more staggered than the mass of Blackfoot . There would have been in September 1962 another 15 000 settlers exploiting their land in Algeria, an estimated total of 22,000 . All land properties of Europeans being nationalized in October 1963, the final departure of the settlers and their families was completed in 1964. However, many Harkis are not allowed to be repatriated in the same way that Europeans or Jews by the French Government, and refugees who secretly joined the metropolis are reembarked flights to Algeria, while the French officers who helped (by disobeying official guidelines) were sanctioned. The terms of the Evian agreements on general amnesty for crimes committed during the war and guarantees granted to Europeans are not respected by the separatists and many Harkis and their families , lynchings (Place d'Armes, Boulevard Sebastopol, Karguentah place, boulevard de l'Industrie, Rue d'Arzew and elsewhere ), torture (hanging , hanging from hooks in butchers ) are committed against the European minority during the massacre in Oran. The French military presence there witnessing the scene with orders of French authorities not to intervene under the Evian agreements. After the War of Independence (1954-1962), the self-determination referendum vote in France (1961), the Referendum on the Evian Accords (1962) and the cease-fire in March 1962 , the Front National Liberation (FLN) took power and became party (see dictatorship ). It urges Algeria to a socialist path, abandoned in 1976 under Houari Boumedienne. The French army evacuates bases in Algeria, which last are all enclaves authorized by the Evian agreements, Reggane and Colomb-Bechar (1967), Mers el-Kebir (1968), Bou Sfer (1970) and B2-Namous (1978). Faced with significant protest movements and the economic crisis, the power involves the democratization of the regime in the late 1980s, under the direction of Chadli Bendjedid. The process is however brutally interrupted following the electoral victory of the Islamic Front hello , party to create an Islamic state, Algeria plunged into a bloody civil war lasting more than a decade and caused nearly 200,000 deaths Algerian Islamist terrorist groups and France (1995) Algerian Islamist terrorism is exported to France with the wave of bombings in 1995 by the Armed Islamic Group (GIA). Non-Muslims are designated persona non grata in Algeria by armed Islamic groups as manifested by the killing of monks Tibhirine (1996) and the departure of the last Jews. In 1999, Abdelaziz Bouteflika was elected president, and then began a policy of national reconciliation. He was criticized for his autocratic ways, while unemployment still affects more than one third of the population. In 2009, Bouteflika was reelected for a third term after amending the Constitution of Algeria. 
Conquest of Algiers (1830)
Under Louis-Philippe I (1830-1848)
First expedition
A limited conquest
Under Napoleon III (1848-1870)
Conquest of Kabylia (1857)
The "United Arab"
The Senatufconfultum (1865)
Mixed Municipal Councils (1866)
Enrichment Algeria's economic
Under the Third Republic (1870-1940)
Orders Cremieux (1870)
Rebellion Spahis
Conquest of the Sahara (1902)
Religion (1905)
Mobilization for the "Great War"
Spahis, and Zouave Rifles
The inter-war period (1919 to 1938)
Battle of Mers el-Kebir (1940)
Status of the Jews of Algeria (1940-1944)
Anglo-American Invasion (1942)
Call for French North Africa (1942)
Under the civil and military command in Algiers (1942-1943)
Political situation in Algeria released (1942 to 1943)
Remobilization for African Army and the Army of Liberation (1942-1945)
Under the French Committee of National Liberation (1943-1944)
Under the Provisional Government of the French Republic (1944-1946)
Mobilization for Indochina War (1946-1954)
Algerian nationalism (1900-1954)
Birth of the national movement
The massacre of May 8, 1945
The Algerian revolt from 1945 to 1954
The Algerian Revolution (1954-1962)
Important Facts of War
Anti-Algerian independence movement
The departure of European settlers
Massacre of Europeans and harkis
The Republic of Algeria since 1962
Independence
Civil War (Decade of terrorism) (1991-2002)
National Reconciliation
Contemporary Algeria
See also
External Links
Bibliography
Notes
References
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