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Falash Mura

Falasha
Beta Israel
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A young Falash Mura in Ethiopia in 2005.
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The Falasha Falasha or ( Geez , Hebrew ), or ( Geez , Hebrew ), or are the Jews of Ethiopia.

Falasha means in Amharic , "exile" or "immigrants". Rarely used by the Jews of Ethiopia, which employ more Beta Israel (the "house of Israel" within the meaning of "family of Israel"), it is generally considered pejorative. There are also, by region of Ethiopia, the terms Kayla (etymology still disputed) and esra'elawi (Jewish). Since immigration to Israel, the term Beta Israel tends to be replaced, in Israel and within the community itself, with "Ethiopian Jews" or simply by ethiopim ("Ethiopians").

The Beta Israel in origin unclear. They have lived for centuries in Northern Ethiopia, particularly the provinces of Gondar and Tigray. After benefiting from small independent states until the seventeenth century , they were conquered by the Empire of Ethiopia, and became a marginalized minority, to which he was forbidden to own land and who was accused of the "evil eye".

They come into contact with Judaism at the end of Western nineteenth century. At the beginning of the twentieth century , a deep redefinition of community identity emerges and leads him to regard themselves as Jewish now, and not just as Beta Israel. This reduces progressively stronger and closer to the original religious particularities of the Beta Israel religion of Orthodox Judaism.

In 1975, the Israeli government recognizes the Jewishness of the Beta Israel. These will then lead a difficult migration to Israel in the 1980 and 1990. In 2009, there are about 110 000 in Israel.

Summary

Religion

In defining the specific identity Beta Israel religion is crucial both vis--vis other Ethiopians than other Jews. The description below was valid in Ethiopia, but quickly evolves into Israel.

The Falasha religion was based on the same version of the Pentateuch as used by the Ethiopian Christians, written in Ge'ez , the liturgical language of the latter. Apart from the five books of the Pentateuch , their version of the Bible includes "books specific to the Septuagint Greek ( Tobit , Judith, Sirach ), and the book of Enoch and Jubilees . The version of the Septuagint has some differences with the Hebrew canon today. They did not use the Pentateuch in Hebrew , a language they knew, moreover, not until the twentieth century. Joseph Halevy also reported that in 1868 bought the Falasha Christian Bibles they sometimes erasing to redact Christian formulas . At the side of the Pentateuch, were also found "a vast sacred literature in Ge'ez , "in part of Christian origin, but redacted . Any rabbinic literature, especially the Talmud , was ignored.

The Beta Israel does not practice the Jewish holidays which are not mentioned in their version of the Bible, such as Hanukkah , Purim , the Fast of Gedaliah or Simchat Torah. They practiced by cons the holiday Passover , Harvest, the fast of Av ( Tisha Beav ), the fast of Esther , the New Year , the Atonement , and Tabernacles. The Beta Israel had finally specific holidays: Arfeasrt, Lesa and especially Segda .

Purity practices were significantly more stringent than in the Orthodox Judaism. There was thus "blood huts," where the woman had to isolate themselves during menstruation, period of impurity. There were also "huts birth" where the woman was isolated 40 days after the birth of a boy, and 80 days after that of a daughter. The men responsible for a funeral should remain isolated and purified 7 days before returning to the village . Finally, after contact with people outside the community, a Beta Israel was subject to purification ceremonies for reinstatement in the group. This command was evasive physical attenku name ("Do not touch me").

Beta Israel communities had no synagogue or rabbi. Their place of worship was called masgid . It read the Bible, and were sacrificed the Passover lamb (biblical tradition abandoned by other Jewish communities). The officiating was Qes Qes or or Ks ( priest ), sometimes assisted by a dabtara or awddach (cantor), a cleric scholar who did not receive the priesthood . Although there is no central religious leader, there are some telleq Kahen (high priest) with a particular regional weight . Until the twentieth century , the Beta Israel community had an important tradition monastic , monasticism probably borrowed from the Christians of Ethiopia. This institution has disappeared in the second half of the twentieth century , and there are more monks Beta Israel. Finally, the Beta Israel communities did not use the Star of David , the latter being a Christian symbol of royalty (the Negus in fact claimed descent from Solomon ).

The term "Jew" (Ayhoud in Amharic ) was not unknown to the Ethiopian society, but it seems to have been used (occasionally) by their Christian surroundings by the Beta Israel themselves.

The specific religious Beta Israel were fought throughout the twentieth century by the Jewish representatives in Ethiopia, and have continued to decline in favor of the practices of rabbinic Judaism, but not disappear. In Israel, under the influence of Orthodox Judaism , their characteristics appear highly endangered, despite some resistance from old practices. See the chapter on this plan "integration in Israel."

Origins

The origin of the Beta Israel is obscure: the history of Ethiopian population is not well known between the fifth century and twelfth century as the Empire of Ethiopia has kept virtually no text in this period.

Beta Israel traditions

The Beta Israel themselves have two main traditions concerning their origins. The first is "the most widespread in the oral tradition" , the Beta Israel descended from Jews who accompanied the Prince Menelik , son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba when he brought the Ark of the Covenant in Ethiopia , the tenth century BC. AD. It may be noted that this tradition is closely connected to the legend of Christians in Ethiopia about the ark of the covenant. It is perhaps an adaptation.

The second tradition is of the Beta Israel are descendants of the tribe of Dan , one of the " Ten Lost Tribes "(deported by the Assyrians in 722 BC ). In Israel, this second tradition tends to become dominant, probably because it is officially accepted by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel in 1973 (see below).

There are also less common traditions and who now tend to disappear from the oral tradition Beta Israel:

  • This is for example the assumption that the Falasha descended from a group of Hebrews who refused to follow Moses during the Exodus from Egypt.
  • In the nineteenth century , a high priest had brought a tradition that seems missing today, that the Ethiopian Falasha would be converted by Moses during a visit to the old country.
  • Another tradition traces the Jewish presence in Ethiopia to flee to Israel after the capture of Jerusalem in 587 BC by the Babylonians.

We may retain these two things different traditions:

  • On the one hand that the Beta Israel consider themselves the descendants of the Hebrews;
  • Other hand they do not have a clear understanding of the unique relationship between themselves and their supposed ancestors.

The textual sources

Until the fifth century , the textual sources indicate the presence of a community Jewish in Ethiopia, as in other countries bordering the Red Sea beyond. In 327, for example, Physostorgios mentions the opposition of the Jews during the conversion to Christianity in the kingdom of Abyssinia. These Jews are not named "Beta Israel" and there is no indication that they had specific rituals.

As the twelfth century , the textual sources, suggest the existence of Beta Israel, but no longer speak of the presence of Jews practicing traditional religion. In the Kebra Nagast , the Ethiopian text thirteenth century , is alluded to Yodit (Judith) a Jewish queen. The first relatively clear reference concerning the Beta Israel dates only from the fourteenth century , in a text called the glorious victories of Amda-Syon. During the reign of King Christian (1314-1344), probably in early 1332, campaigns in the north-west of Semien, Wegera, Tsellemt, and Tseged Begemder (or Gonder) are mentioned against renegade who as Jews "(in Ge'ez : kama ayhud) .

A Christian monk of the fourteenth century , Zena Marqos, nephew of King Yekouno Amlak (1270-1285) wrote a fairly accurate account of history and religion of the Beta Israel, obtained from a single source, a convert. This shows in particular that the Falasha came into the country with Menelik I. , son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon , they know the Bible but do not believe in the birth of Christ by Mary .

Two families of hypotheses have been advanced by historians for the appearance of the Beta Israel communities.

The hypothesis Jewish

The Beta Israel had appeared on the base of the core Jewish presence in the Ethiopia before the fifth century. This core would have expanded by intermarriage and conversion. They had to be either important or original Jewish community was already widely Ethiopia as studies on the DNA of the Ethiopian people were showing no genetic specificity of the Beta Israel in relation to other Ethiopian populations.

The presence of Jews in Ethiopia in the fifth century, before the drying up of documentary sources, argues in favor of this hypothesis.

In the seventeenth century , Manoel de Almeida, a Portuguese diplomat and traveler, wrote (in his history of high Ethiopia or Abassia ): "The Falasha, or Jewish race are The hypothesis Christian

According to this hypothesis, the Beta Israel are from groups that Christian fundamentalists do not regard as authentic as the Pentateuch and dismissing the rest of the Bible , particularly the New Testament. Such attitudes are known in other groups: subbotnik Russian or Black Hebrews U.S.. A rejection of the dominant religion would have been facilitated by the refusal of the imperial power by the people of Northern power legitimized by religion Coptic .

Several factors support this hypothesis:

  • the already highly Judaizing of Christianity Ethiopian Coptic : respect for the Sabbath , circumcision , dietary laws, supposed origin of the Jewish Christian dynasty . This strong legitimation of the Old Testament may have led some to relativize and reject the New Testament.
  • the origin of the Christian version of the Pentateuch used by the Beta Israel, and the use of Ge'ez as a liturgical language,
  • the presence of monks , of priests (KES), not rabbis ,
  • non-traditional use of the name " Jew , certain Jewish holidays, the absence of traditional Jewish symbols like the Star of David , ignorance of the term " synagogue " , replaced by a derivative of " Mosque ". As a general rule, anything that falls within the Jewish tradition, but that is not present in the Pentateuch , is ignored.
  • subsequent conversions of Christians to the faith of the Beta Israel, as attested by the Christian texts. These conversions show a certain attractiveness of the Beta Israel on Christians, which does not necessarily mean that the first Beta Israel came from Christian backgrounds.
  • genetic studies, which show no relationship between the Beta Israel and other Jewish communities, but insist on genetic similarity with the local population . However, if genetics demonstrates the local origin of the Beta Israel population, it does not decide about the origin of their religion: conversion of the Jews or auto conversion .

In the absence of clear evidence, two hypotheses remain.

Ancient History

Sketch of a woman Beta Israel, published in Journey into Abyssinia Lefebure. Late nineteenth century.

The history of Beta Israel becomes really accessible texts that from the fourteenth century. It is mainly through Christian texts that are known events of the day, which obviously raises the problem of completeness and neutrality of the sources. Despite this reservation, these texts allow us to decompose the ancient history of the Beta Israel in three periods.

The gradual loss of independence - from XIV century to 1624

Ethiopian texts have a long period of war between the Empire of Ethiopia and the small independent states of the North. These were Beta Israel, Christians, Muslims or pagans , generally speaking the languages Agaw. Imperial thrust has therefore not made only against the Beta Israel.

It is not at this time a single state Beta Israel in the north, but a collection of small kingdoms, which we know also that little thing. Ethiopian chronicles Portray a relatively open Beta Israel community in its Christian environment. They relate in fact quite a number of conversions of Christians to the religion of the Beta Israel, which indicates both that they had some activity proselyte, and secondly that it met with some success. It has been hypothesized that some of this success was due to the willingness of a number of Christians in the North to escape the imperial tutelage. Thus in the fifteenth century that monasticism is hosted by Beta Israel Abba Sabra, a former Christian monk. Monasticism Beta Israel appears to be older, but it is Abba Sabra gave him its full importance. It also notes that many elements enter the Christian liturgical religion Beta Israel, after being "clean" aspects of them Christians, probably still under the influence of converts.

Despite this appeal, the Beta Israel are constantly losing ground to the imperial troops. Early in the fifteenth century , the king of Ethiopia I. Yeshaq enacts "he who is baptized in the Christian religion may inherit the land of his ancestors, otherwise it is a Falasi" (wandering, exile). The term does not only the Beta Israel, but all non-Christians. Ultimately, it means more than the Beta Israel. By losing the right to own land in areas conquered by the empire, they gradually become a class of landless peasants, working the fields of feudal lords. Many massacres and conversions more or less forced or voluntary (depending on the location and times) are reported, and the Beta Israel population seems to decline sharply in this period, from an original population estimated very roughly 500 000 people. Languages Agaw also beginning to decline in favor of Amharic.

Inclusion in the Empire - 1624-1769

In 1624, the last independent Beta Israel fought by Christian Ethiopian army, supported by the Portuguese, who were present in the Horn of Africa since the sixteenth century. The Portuguese diplomat Manoel de Almeida speaks of them in his History of High Ethiopia or Abassia.

The destruction of the institutional basis Beta Israel in northern Ethiopia has probably resulted in the destruction of their records and their books, erasing the memory of their history and their origins .

Castle Fazilidas of Ethiopia , Negus from 1632 to 1667 and founded the city of Gondar , which helped many Falasha .

Beta Israel population is concentrated in two northern provinces, especially Gondar , and to a much lesser extent Tigray (see map below). With independence, the Falasha of Gondar lose the characteristics of a diverse society. There is no more noble or social hierarchy. Now exists a class of landless peasants, but with a small middle class tied to the imperial administration. It has installed its new capital in Gondar , the former territory of the Beta Israel. Especially in the area of government buildings that specializes middle class .

The Beta Israel of Tigray by cons retain the right to own land and their social situation it is less impaired.

In 1769 the Scottish explorer James Bruce , seeking the sources of the Nile , estimated the population to another 100 000 people. He also noted "the language spoken is the Falasha, although it is now used by most Jews . The language reported by Bruce is clearly a form of the Agaw , the original language of northern populations. The amharisation, that is to say, linguistic acculturation to the dominant group of the empire, the Amhara, according to Bruce is already well advanced for the northern populations, except for the Falasha, which confirms the status isolated group that is theirs.

The disappearance of the central government - 1769-1855

From 1769 to 1855, the central government cleared. The country is dominated by warlords and feudal lords, and the general situation deteriorates sharply campaigns. Public Facilities cease, and the middle class disappears Beta Israel. As compensation, some Beta Israel specialize in crafts, more specifically in the couple blacksmiths (for men) and pottery (women). However, in Ethiopia as a part of Africa, blacksmiths and potters are considered witches. In Ethiopia, it is called Buda. The Buda the evil eye, can turn into hyenas to devour human beings, "eats the souls of the living. Any contact with him should be avoided .

In the nineteenth century, Beta Israel has been radically altered. In an independent and diversified, it became a caste of landless peasants, blacksmiths and potters, with some religious. She lives in villages reserved (about 500 before the immigration Israel ), and is avoided by all. Far from its previous proselytizing, she folded in on itself to survive, increasing emphasis on its cleansing practices and avoidance of non-Jews. Beta Israel while in contact with non-Jews must be purified before re-entering the community.

The smaller population of Tigray is living a social reality a bit better: it has retained the right to own land, and shelving is less extensive.

Modern History

Regions where the Falasha lived in modern times, as a minority.

The contemporary history of Beta Israel begins with the reunification of Ethiopia during the reign of Theodore II (Theodore II or) in 1855. At that time, the Beta Israel population is estimated between 50,000 and 100,000 people.

Missions Protestant and Jewish mission-cons

Despite occasional contacts earlier, the West was really aware of their existence until the Beta Israel come into contact with missionaries Protestants of the " London Society for Promoting Christianity Among the Jews "( 1859 ). This company had specialized in the conversion of Jews. The announcement of its presence in northern Ethiopia, under the direction of a converted Jew named Henry Aaron Stern, create some excitement in the Jewish West. Several rabbis in response proclaim the Jewishness of the Beta Israel, and the Alliance Israelite Universelle decides against a mission to Ethiopia, which is charged Joseph Halevy in 1867 - 1868.

Halevy made a very favorable report to the Beta Israel. It calls for the establishment of Jewish schools, and even offers to "bring in Palestine thousands of settlers Falashas , a dozen years before the formation of the first organization Zionist.

But after the brief excitement generated by media coverage of the London Mission Society, the Beta Israel are further ignored. Serious doubts remain about their Jewishness, and the Alliance Israelite Universelle does not comply with the recommendations of Halevy.

Until 1904, the only continuous contacts with Westerners What the Beta Israel are those established with the London Missionary Society. Between 1859 and 1922, it only converts to Christianity Coptic (not to Protestantism, under an agreement with the government of Ethiopia) about 2000 Beta Israel. This result is modest, and is partly explained by a strong religious reaction of the monks Beta Israel, but he has three consequences.

On the one hand, the London Society considers the Beta Israel as Jews, and his speech seems to have had the unintended consequence of promoting the emergence of a sense of community with a hitherto totally unknown world of Judaism.

On the other hand, conversions are involved in some breakdown of the Beta Israel society. Converts are excluded from the community. Villages and families intersect in two.

Finally, a new group of converts is created. Rejected by the Beta Israel, but not really accepted by Christians as always suspected Buda, where the group caught between two worlds seems to have been difficult. We find among them one of the origins of the current Falash Mura.

The "Bad days"

Between 1888 and 1892, northern Ethiopia is experiencing a series of disasters: devastating famine, invasion of dervishes Sudanese Mahdi , and epidemics. The number of dead is very important. "Mothers have cooked and eaten their own children. Horrible things are done, which are unspeakable . The Beta Israel, as a minority group very poor are particularly affected. It is estimated that between half and two thirds of the community will disappear, blow from which it is noted that very difficult. Monasteries Jews seem to have particularly affected , and at the approach of the twentieth century is fatal to them, because of the strong opposition of world Jewry. The period has kept the name-qan Kefu, "bad days".

.

The question of the Jewishness of the Beta Israel was received with some sympathy within Judaism in the West between the wars. The World Jewish Congress or the seal and have shares in favor of Falashas. The rav kook , spiritual father of the current religious Zionist rabbi and Palestine, recognizes them as Jews in 1921 .

The languages spoken by the Beta Israel

When the meeting in 1867, Joseph Halevy notes cohabitation between the Amharic and Agaw : "They speak both languages Amharic .

Forty years later, Jacques Faitlovitch notes the progress of amharisation. "The .

During the twentieth century , the traditional languages of the North disappear completely from the Beta Israel community, replaced by the Amharic in Gondar , and Tigrinya in Tigray. In the early 1990s, however, "a language Agawa, the quarennia still spoken by the .

The liturgical language is against the Ge'ez language groups for the three survivors in the twentieth century. The Hebrew has made a tentative appearance in Ethiopia under the influence of Jewish schools, mostly from the 1950s.

the Bari Falasha

Beta Israel society includes a sub-group of lower status, a real minority of the minority, Bari, where captives. Barya status is not specific to the Falasha community, and there are also other religions Bari in other religious communities in the North. Their origin is not dated, but they are well documented in modern times in the Beta Israel community, and still exist today in Israel. The Bari descended from slaves purchased by Beta Israel on the old slave markets, and converted to the religion of their masters. They are considered "black" (t'equr or shanqilla, word origin Agaw that references the very black Nilotic peoples) by the Falasha. "The Beta Israel to perceive themselves as qey . In fact, their skin is clearer, and facial features more "Middle Eastern" as those populations within the continent . The Bari, they have more typically African features, although according to Hagar Salamon, "the proliferation of marital master-slave" (otherwise prohibited) have gradually blurred the differences .

The Bari are endogamous , and are not allowed to marry non-families Beta Israel Baria. There is also a concept of half and quarter Barias Baria, forced to marry them . They are victims of various prejudices, are assumed to be "primitive." They did in Ethiopia limited access to places of worship (Masgid), which varies by regions. Hagar Salamon and reported by them, they should remain in the courtyard of Masgid, or should leave it while playing the Orit (the Bible), or could not enter after several years . They were generally not allowed to be buried in the same cemetery as the other Falasha, and they did not eat meat from animals they shot them.

Until their immigration to Israel, the Bari have maintained a status of a servant, despite the formal abolition of slavery in 1924. They were "a de facto part of the homestead and continued to be bequeathed from one generation to another. .

Refused Israeli accession Beta Israel

Rabbi Ovadia Yosef

During the creation of the State of Israel , the Israeli Chief Rabbinate decided not to follow his predecessors, refuses to recognize as Jews Beta Israel. The government, which did not follow the rabbinate in the case of the Samaritans or Karaites accept this position, denying them the right to immigrate to Israel. This position is, however, applied with a certain ambiguity. The Jewish Agency and maintains Jewish schools in Ethiopia. They are closed in 1958 for budgetary reasons, but one remains open, a symbol of acceptance and rejection partial dominant. American Jewish organizations that were helping Beta Israel since the end of World War II also essential to halt their operations in early 1960.

Paradoxically, despite this growing rejection, the 1950 and 1960 the Beta Israel population is closer to Orthodox Judaism. Membership in the Jewish world is now accepted and strongly asserted. The star of David is quickly absorbed, and replaced the roof on places of worship the ancient symbols: a jar of red or a phallic symbol . Some Jewish holidays begin to be practiced. In the 1950s, a booklet summarizing the rabbinical practice is disseminated in the community. A new generation of Ksotch fate of Jewish schools and also disseminates these practices .

The Ethiopian revolution of 1974

In 1974, a group of pro-communist military, the Derg , or Darg, took power in Ethiopia. The consequences for the Beta Israel are important.

On the one hand, the old prescriptions against the possession of the land disappear, and a vast redistribution of feudal land is organized for the benefit of landless peasants, Christians, Muslims or Beta Israel.

On the other hand, the regime is gradually taking positions anti-religious and anti-Israeli, which hit the Beta Israel.

Finally, the old feudal organized within the EDU (Ethiopian Democratic Union), and trigger the armed struggle against the new regime. Farmers benefiting from land reform are so often victims of massacres. Populations declining both EDU and the new regime of supporting armed opposition left, the EPRP (Ethiopian People Revolutionary Party) and the TPLF (Tigrean People Liberation Front). A number of young Beta Israel joined the government troops or rebels left. While rocking the North in the Civil War. In the early 1980s, famine set in a sustainable manner. The situation of northern populations, and not only the Beta Israel, becomes untenable. Hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians try to escape war and famine to neighboring Sudan .

Emigration

By the late 1940s, there are some Falasha in Israel. These are women who are married to Yemeni Jewish soldiers in the British army, and some students. In 1955, twenty teenagers are in school in Kfar Batya, to become teachers in Ethiopia. Most of them do return to the early 1960s .

Emigration and illegal Israeli recognition

Between 1965 and 1975 is set up a small emigration Beta Israel to Israel. It is mainly the men, very few, who have studied, who come to Israel on a tourist visa (the Ethiopia , a country officially Christian , knows a stream of pilgrims visiting the holy land ), then there remain illegally. They are on site supporters, who recognize them as Jews and help them. These supporters are organized in associations, among others under the direction of Ovadia Hazza, Yemeni Jew and former sergeant in the Israeli army , married to a Beta Israel since the Second World War. Some people get a regularization of their situation through these supports. Some agree to "convert" to Judaism , which regulates their personal problem, but not the situation in their community. People who get their regularization often bring their families.

In 1973 , Ovadia Hazza officially raised the question of the Jewishness of the Beta Israel Rabbi Sephardic Israel, Ovadia Yosef. The rabbi, citing a rabbinic ruling Egyptian sixteenth century , that of Radbaz (Rabbi David ben Zimra, 1462-1572) and resuming his argument that the Beta Israel are descended from the lost tribe of Dan , acknowledged their Jewishness in February 1973. It is initially rejected by the Chief Rabbi Ashkenazi , Shlomo Goren , who ended up rallying, however in 1974.

In April 1975 , the government of Yitzhak Rabin formally accepts the character Jew of the Beta Israel, and gives them the benefit of the Law of Return (Act allows any Jew in the world to immigrate to Israel).

Emigration mass of the Beta Israel

Migration Map Beta Israel in the early 1980s.
Memorial Kiryat Gat in memory of the Beta Israel died on the way to Israel.

Emigration to Israel Beta Israel still officially banned by the Ethiopian government of 1973 to 1990. This is primarily the result of the rupture of diplomatic relations by Haile Selassie I. in 1973 between Israel and the imperial Ethiopia, following the Yom Kippur War . It is then the result of military coup of 1974, which directs diplomacy in a way pro- Soviet marked from 1976 , until restoration of diplomatic relations in 1989. Despite the official ban, an emigration takes place, taking place in several waves. She empties the Beta Israel some 500 villages in northern inhabitants:

1977 - One hundred twenty-one emigrate to Israel with the agreement of the Ethiopian government, as part of a secret agreement for the supply of arms by the Israeli government to the new revolutionary government of Ethiopia, which was then at war against the Somalia for the control of the Ogaden. The agreement is broken by Ethiopia after being revealed to the press by Moshe Dayan in February 1978. He put in effect undermined the new position "anti-imperialist and pro-Soviet diplomacy, Ethiopia, Israel is an ally of the United States.

1980-1984 - Driven by civil war, the Ethiopian North, including the fled to South Sudan. According to the Jerusalem Post of May 15, 1986, 6649 people, mostly Tigreans, earning Israel by circuitous routes between January 1980 and autumn 1984 (the Sudanese government, officially at war with Israel, closes his eyes more or less under U.S. pressure), with the help of Israeli special services. Beyond the war, the Falasha Tigray also go under the influence of word of mouth: the families who arrived in Israel early inform their relatives of their successful emigration, leading to new beginnings.

Fall 1984 - Spring 1985 - In part motivated by reports on the success of the emigration Tigray, Gondar Jewish refugees, many more than Tigrean, a tributary to the Sudan in 1983, and illegal discharge channels do enough. The great famine of 1984-1985 displaced hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians from the north to the refugee camps in Northern Ethiopia and Sudan. Tens of thousands of Ethiopians are starving in true "death marches", and explodes in the death camps in Sudan. Among these victims, it is estimated that 3 to 4000 are Falasha. Late 1984, the Sudanese government, following the intervention of the United States of America , secretly leaves from the 7200 refugees remaining Beta Israel to the Europe , where they immediately gain Israel. There are two waves: the Operation Moses , 20 November 1984 to January 4, 1985, relate to 6500 people. This operation is interrupted by the Sudan when the press shows, the Queen of Sheba operation conducted by the CIA a few weeks later, to evacuate 650 people remaining in Sudan. This second operation is the result of U.S. pressure very important. Twenty per cent of entrants should be hospitalized, the others are usually in a catastrophic health condition.

1985-1989 - The Ethiopian regime is blocking the emigration, and the relative stabilization of the situation in the north stopped the exodus to the Sudanese camps. Illegal immigration remains a small, always aided by the Mossad. Its scope is very modest.

1990-1991 - Submitted to strong pressure from rebel Tigrayan and Eritrean , and losing Soviet military support in the collapse of the Eastern bloc , the Ethiopian government allowed from 6000 to Israel in small groups , hoping to get closer to the United States of America , allies of Israel. Many Beta Israel earn Addis Ababa , capital of Ethiopia , hoping to escape the civil war in the north (their region of origin), and hoping to leave for Israel. They are crammed into camps on the outskirts of the city.

1991 and Operation Solomon - When the collapse of communist Ethiopia, the 14 324 refugees in Addis Ababa were evacuated in two days to Israel by an airlift ( Operation Solomon ). There are 34 rotations of aircraft of El Al , which we had removed the seats to load more people. Again, strong American pressure has facilitated the operation and a transfer of 35 million to accounts of the last representatives of the regime .

1991-1994 - The latest remaining in Ethiopia emigrate to Israel , especially those in the region of forty or Qware (between Lake Tana and the Sudan) in 1992, which are the only ones to move from their villages in Israel without Filter refugee camps.

Falash Mura - From 1992 begins an irregular emigration, subject to political developments in Israel, that of

The difficult Falash Mura immigration

Falash Mura village in 2003.

Since 1991, Israeli authorities announced that the issue of emigration Beta Israel was about to be resolved, thanks to the departure of almost all Jews. But since then, thousands of people left the north to take refuge in Addis Ababa , declaring themselves Jewish and asking to emigrate to Israel.

A new term appears to refer to this group: Falash Mura.

These people, who do not belong to Beta Israel communities constituted, are not recognized as Jews by Israel , and are initially not allowed to emigrate. They are basically the original Beta Israel (with some doubts), but left organized communities, sometimes for two or three generations.

The Israeli authorities consider that these people are now Christian and not be eligible for the Law of Return as Jews. They also say that many are not even Ancestry Beta Israel, but are Christian ethnic seeking to emigrate to the West. They therefore consider the Falash Mura as economic migrants.

Interested persons claiming to be assimilated Jews, who did not put forward their membership in a community where Beta Israel is being devalued. They deny any conversion to Christianity , or accept as satisfying a constraint.

Have long existed elsewhere groups of converts. It was not really forced conversions, but conversions to escape a painful social situation. Many of these groups continued to practice their religion in private. The anthropologist Simon Messing has conducted a survey in 1962 among Wodadj Maryam (Friends of Mary), a group ostensibly Christian (women tattoo their crosses on the face), but still practicing religion in private Beta Israel, strictly endogamous (marrying not only with Christians) living in the Dembea (between the city of Gondar and Lake Tana ). "In the early 1980s, GJ Abbink identifies other groups of converts " Judaizers: The Faras Muqri the Chmman ("people of Chamma ') west of Lake Tana, T'biban ("wise men" or "magicians"), a group of blacksmiths Ankober and living in Addis Ababa , which had already talked Faitlovitch. Yona Bogale, a senior leader of Gondar Beta Israel, "knew personally in Addis Ababa a group of Falasha .

The Falash Mura are however not a homogenous group, and only their desire to emigrate, which are grouped under this term. You can find it seems many cases, since the Beta Israel assimilated but never converted to the Christians of lying about their ethnic origin, to persons from families converted more or less out of obligation, or more or less out of conviction, excluding families from mixed marriages.

Moreover, Jewish religious law (but not Israeli law) considers that even converted Jew remains a Jew. For the rabbis , a return to Judaism of the convert or her children (at least if the mother was Jewish) remains possible. Subject to prove his ancestry Beta Israel, which is not always easy, even when it's true.

Given these divergent views, and the difficulty to determine a lively debate has risen in Israel , and within the community of Israel Beta Israel between supporters and opponents of emigration Falash Mura. The government's position remained globally quite restrictive, but has been subject to numerous criticisms, including some clerics who want to encourage the return (when there have been a conversion, which is probably not always the case) to Judaism of these groups said, "Falash Mura." The secular Israeli reluctance to purely religious definition of Jewish identity have often been more reluctant than the recognition of religious Falash Mura.

During the 1990s , the government finally allowed most of those who fled to Addis Ababa to emigrate to Israel. Some have done so through the Law of Return , which allows a parent of a non-Jewish Israeli Jew to emigrate, while others were welcomed as humanitarian.

The Israeli government hoped to resolve the problem, but the information that the people of Beta Israel could emigrate to Israel drew a wave of refugees even more important to Addis Ababa , which led the Israeli government to harden its position the late 1990s. Early 2003 , there were just under 20,000 refugees Falash Mura in Addis Ababa, sometimes for years. We're talking (very loosely) of an equivalent number of Falash Mura who still live in Northern Ethiopia. In April 2005, the Jerusalem Post said it had conducted a survey in Ethiopia, after which he came to the conclusion that tens of thousands of Falash Mura still lived in rural northern Ethiopia, not identified by Jewish organizations but tempted by emigration to Israel.

In February 2003 the Israeli government has decided to accept that religious conversions organize Israeli official Jewish people really original Beta Israel, and that these people can then migrate to Israel as Jewish. The new position is more open, authorities and religious Israeli government should in theory allow emigration to Israel of most of the Falash Mura wishing (whose original Beta Israel is recognized). In practice, however, that immigration remains slow, and the Israeli government continued to limit, from 2003 to 2006, the entry of about 300 Falash Mura immigrants per month. In 2004, the services of the Israeli Ministry responsible for immigration have thus indicated that only 3,700 Ethiopians had emigrated to Israel. The Israeli government, however, confirmed in January 2005 that the goal remained well to bring all the Falash Mura of Jewish origin in Israel , and that the rate would increase from 300 to 600 people per month starting in June 2005. Mid 2007, however, the quota of 300 immigrants per month remains in force, and has even been reduced thereafter. For the Hebrew year 5769 (September 2008-September 2009), only 130 Ethiopians have immigrated. In 5770 (September 2009-September 2010), there were 1,320 immigrants "because of the change in government policy allowing Falash Mura come to the country .
In December 2010 the government gave the green light to the immigration of new 8000 Falash Mura in four years at a rate of 200 per month, warning that immigration would be the last group .

Before the regular variation of government policies, the Jerusalem Post in 2010 may well speak of "a process that was stopped and restarted by the state over the past five years, depending on who headed the Interior Ministry .

One explanation for the reluctance to face the Israeli immigration is difficult to define reality Claims Falash Mura to Israel Beta ancestry. The articles in the Israeli press reported that the Ethiopians who want to emigrate pay Beta Israel or Falash Mura eligible to emigrate to declare them as members of their families. Israel does not want a wave of emigration AEC.

Integration in Israel

An Israeli soldier of Ethiopian origin in Nablus in 2006, photo: David Bicchetti

In 2005, there were approximately 105 000 persons of Ethiopian origin in Israel, including 30,000 born in the country , and 110 000 in 2009 . They consist mostly of former and Falasha Mura Falash. The latter, which would be about thirty thousand in 2010 , usually emphasize their Jewishness. A small group remains a Christian, and even has strongly criticized proselytizing activities by the community .

Despite the strong insistence of virtually all Ethiopians (all sources), their attachment to Judaism and Israel, integration poses some practical problems.

Culture Shock

The first contact with Israel has generally been a fairly violent shock for new immigrants. For a rural school with a very low level, the universe has asked Israeli urban adjustment problems. Many new immigrants, especially those in remote villages, did not know electricity, elevators or television. Adaptation to Israeli food has been particularly difficult. The breakup of families during the exodus, and sometimes in the distribution centers of integration between Israelis has caused many injuries. Name changes have caused a symbolic break with the past. Indeed, administration Hebraicized given names, and requires family names, which do not exist in the Ethiopian society. These name changes have created a two tier system, where old and new names overlap, are used and compete. Immersion in Hebrew has not been easy, a majority of immigrants did not arrive, even after years in Israel, the master, resulting in a strong social marginalization. Finally, the questioning of traditional religious practices by the rabbinate was a moment of confusion.

Israeli sociologists have noted a variety of adjustment problems, resulting in a minority of acute psychological problems and even suicides in the years immediately following immigration. In the late 1980s, "the proportion of suicides among Ethiopian Jews has surpassed that of all other national communities immigrants" before declining.

The new generations are cons quickly melted in Israeli culture, with some specificity: "the development of a culture in the Israeli- African American , and identification with black music such as reggae and rap , are used to structure their identity " . This identification codes of dress and music of black Americans as part of a "generation gap" with adult immigrants from Ethiopia.

The formation of specific neighborhoods

The housing problem is a recurring problem at each mass immigration to Israel, ever since the 1950s. For Ethiopians, various solutions have been implemented, particularly in mobile home camps. Satisfactory in terms of comfort, these solutions "provisional", but sometimes tend to last, had two drawbacks. On the one hand, they push on the outskirts of the cities new populations, creating ethnically fairly homogeneous groups and inhibiting their integration. On the other hand, these areas are sometimes far from jobs in the Israeli economy, are poorly or not served by public transport, thereby amplifying the problems of unemployment.

Over time, the Ethiopians settled in the city, creating "ethnic enclaves or extended families come together voluntarily . The "whites" have become more likely to leave areas with high concentrations of Ethiopia, with the term risk of the formation of ghettos.

The religious evolution

Falasha women praying at the Wailing Wall

Some Haredi (ultra orthodox) still do not recognize the Beta Israel as Jews, not just those from the Falash Mura.

Without going that far, the Israeli Rabbinate has always doubted the validity of marriages and conversions performed by the Beta Israel, they are not complying with Halakha. He has been asked before each conversion simplified marriage, to secure the Jewish status of new immigrants. Accepted by the first immigrants of Tigray , the ceremony was largely rejected in 1985 by immigrants from the Gondar , resulting in a long conflict with the Chief Rabbinate. The latter finally agreed to limit the number of these conversions only symbolic to the more dubious cases. Paradoxalement, les tant souvent convertis en bonne et due forme lors de leur immigration peuvent avoir moins de problme de statut personnel.

Concernant l'encadrement religieux, la soixantaine de (prtres) thiopiens migrs en Isral ont t salaris par le ministre des cultes, et continuent animer nombres de crmonies religieuses. Ils ne sont cependant pas reconnus comme rabbins et n'ont donc par exemple pas le droit de clbrer des mariages (monopole des rabbins en Isral, au moins pour les Juifs). Pour ceux qui taient les garants de la communaut, la perte de prestige et de statut social est donc importante, et gnralement mal vcue. Beaucoup de rabbins les associent cependant encore aux mariages de la communaut. Une nouvelle gnration de rabbins d'origine thiopienne est galement en train d'apparatre, reprenant progressivement le pouvoir religieux aux , aprs avoir t forme dans les Yechivot israliennes. En 2005, on comptait nanmoins 8 nouveaux ordonns en Isral depuis le dbut de l'immigration . Eux ne sont pas reconnus par le ministre des cultes, qui souhaite un alignement terme des pratiques religieuses thiopiennes sur celles des Juifs orthodoxes. Les anciens et les nouveaux rejettent gnralement avec plus ou moins de vigueur les rgles rabbiniques tires du Talmud , dont ils considrent qu'elles ne sont pas prescrites par l' (la Bible).

Encore plus en rupture avec le rabbinat isralien sont les disciples de Abba Beyene, qui se prsente comme le dernier moine thiopien (cf supra). Celui-ci, emprisonn en thiopie pour sionisme , n'accepte pas la position rabbinique quand elle est en conflit avec sa propre comprhension de la pratique juive, qui est d'abord base sur les cinq livres de Mose ( Pentateuque ), et non sur le Talmud / Sup> ". His ascetic practices and community attracting young Israelis of Ethiopian origin, who hope to regain their religious roots, facing cultural assimilation of the majority of their community. His approach is also in a desire to see the rebirth of the ancient practice of Jewish Ethiopian monks.

Despite this attachment to the practices of some Ethiopian Beta Israel religious traditions seem to fall quickly, opposed by the rabbinate and the Israeli way of life. The vast majority of students from immigrant families have been supported by the religious state school system . However, over time, " , and secularization progresses.

Day Sigd.

Extremes of purity laws regress significantly, although it was noted women isolating themselves even during menstruation. In the absence of "hut of blood", this isolation could be done in a bedroom, a balcony, and sometimes even in a closet. Sociologists have noted that parallel to the regression of traditional (already started in Ethiopia since the 1950s), feelings of loss, guilt and even phobias were growing among new immigrants. In the words of Qes Maru "in Israel, . The abandonment of pure shock especially adult immigrants. In Ethiopia , these practices differed from the Beta Israel Christians. Behavior "impure" of Israeli Jews would therefore appear as particularly blameworthy. The refusal to eat meat kosher , considered unclean because not slaughtered according to the customs Beta Israel is particularly strong among the older generation.

Orthodox Judaism Israel has agreed to a few practices, as the festival of Sigd (or Seged or ECMS) . On the 29th of the Hebrew month of Cheshvan , the members of the Ethiopian Jewish community fast and go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where Kessim recite parts of Orit. The party has however lost some of its religious significance, and also became a community gathering and policy, which urge state officials.

Socio-economic

A demonstration against the difficulties of integration in Israel.

The biggest challenge of Ethiopians probably lies in the very low level of education of immigrants. With few exceptions, they had no training on arrival for use by a developed economy like that of Israel , and did not know the Hebrew. Illiteracy was very common (90% among adults aged 37 years or more, according to one estimate ), although young people were better educated and a minority had attended secondary schools in Ethiopia. Regarding more recent immigration of Falash Mura, NGOs (such as the North American Conference on Ethiopian Jewry) try to give to those who wait years in Ethiopia their immigration training (very basic) for use in Israel , and notions of Hebrew. Eighty percent of adults Falash Mura, however, become unemployed in Israel .

Given this significant difference between the qualifications of the Beta Israel and the needs of Israeli companies, high unemployment is found among immigrants: 65% of those over age 45 in 2005 . This structural unemployment contributes to anchoring the bottom of the pyramid of the Beta Israel. The younger generations born or grown in Israel are more successful insertion into the economic fabric of Israel, thanks to a "modern" education, but education levels are recorded on average smaller (in 2000 the pass rate was 33 Tray %, against 45% for Jewish youth in general ), and inhibit the emergence of a true middle class of Ethiopian origin. In 2005, 3000, however, are already young graduates of higher education, and 1,500 others at the university . But even graduates often have trouble finding a job.

Low educational attainment, standard of living very modest, and sometimes degraded habitat disadvantaged or isolated, this set of circumstances related to each other may explain the development of delinquency among the youth of Ethiopian origin: its rate in 2005 was three times that found among young Israelis from all sources .

The problem of racism

Reactions to racism may also occur, especially where high concentrations of Beta Israel exist. Anthropologist Lisa Anteby Yemnini-reported tensions within the centers of integration between olim (new immigrants) from Ethiopia and the former Soviet Union, "you knew that in Ethiopia they lived in trees? They are wild, and they want us to believe they are Jews ! " . Some mayors, like that of Or Yehuda , have also refused the implantation of Ethiopians in their communities, whereas a "threshold" was exceeded and fearing a drop in grade and an increase in crime.

These reactions are part of the growing demands and challenges of young Ethiopians, a minority can even be very virulent, "Israel is one of the states most racist against blacks in the world . A less steep, the same article says that "many Ethiopians 20 or 30 years, who were born in Israel or immigrated there young, admit that although they have gone through the" crucible "of military service , they still feel different and unwanted in Israelis' meeting places and prefer to hang out in their own places (like clubs "black").

Confirming this feeling of exclusion, a survey published by the Jerusalem Post in 2005 indicated that 43% of Israelis do not want themselves or their children marry or Beta Israel .

The now common use of the term 'Ethiopian', instead of Beta Israel or even "Jew from Ethiopia," and as such by those concerned by their Israeli environment, confirms the structure ethno-community youth generations about skin color and origin.

If the term "black" is starting to be claimed by the younger generation, he has been dismissed against his parents, because in Ethiopia, "the system of racial perceptions that dominates the world of the Beta Israel "the" black (t'equr) were Barya, Beta Israel despised minority of slave origin (see above). The Barya now live in Israel, and are officially recognized as Jews, but social distinctions still exist, and virulent racial prejudice exists against them in many Beta Israel (dirty, ignorant, savage, cursed, unclean), and not just in the older generation . Marriages with them are normally prohibited. The new Israeli realities have rendered the Bari independent of their former masters, is also emerging as a claim Barya, sometimes full of anger against the exclusion by other Beta Israel.

Associations and claims

Shlomo Molla, deputy party Kadima , elected in 2009.

Very quickly, self-organization of the Ethiopians has emerged as a political reality in Israel. It is more the result of immigrants from Gondar as those of Tigray or Falash Mura, more discreet. By the end of 1985 were conducted for mass protests against the demands of the rabbinate to perform a conversion ceremony simplified before any marriage. The associations have since ceased to grow, so much so that we could say, in exaggerating much, there were as many as families. Lisa Anteby-Yemini speaks of "love of the dispute . Beta Israel society is indeed based on the village and extended family, and build solidarity transcending the old divisions still seems difficult. The crumbling of the associations remained significant, although most are grouped in the "Organization of Ethiopian Jews in Israel." But these differences do not prevent movement of claim fairly regular.

The most important was that of 1996 when it was discovered that blood donations by Ethiopians were quietly and systematically destroyed by the health services due to contamination of a minority by the virus AIDS . The anger was fierce, and accusations of racism particularly virulent, punctuated by mass protests and a strong community mobilization.

Israeli political parties have tried to seduce the electorate. From 1996 to 1999 the lawyer Addisu Messele has served on the 14thKnesset in the colors of the Labour Party. After the 2009 elections, Shlomo Molla, the party Kadima became the only member of Ethiopian origin .

Overall, the electorate "Ethiopia" has been rather sensitive to the views of the Israeli right, particularly given the more favorable attitude of the latter in favor of immigration, and this from the government of Menachem Begin (1977 ).

Integration: Overview

Ultimately, the integration of Ethiopians into Israeli society progresses, but the social and cultural situation of the Beta Israel remains difficult. Their traditional culture, based on the isolation of Christian community, village life, extended family and religious traditions specific seems in any case can not survive in the state in urban society and "modern" Israel.

See also

Related articles

Bibliography

Filmography

External Links

References

  1. http://www.iaej.co.il/newsite/Data/UploadedFiles/SitePages/917-sFileRedir.pdf
  2. a , b and c Key Ethiopian advocacy group in danger , Ruth Eglash, Jerusalem Post , April 17, 2009.
  3. If you have trouble viewing, you must install the font ftp://ftp.ethiopic.org/pub/fonts/TrueType/gfzemenu.ttf.
  4. Beta Esral transcription is closest to the Ethiopian, but is now replaced by a more Israel Beta Israel.
  5. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 25.
  6. According to Stephen Kaplan in 1992, quoted by the Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 228.
  7. Quoted by Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 228.
  8. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, p.227.
  9. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 229.
  10. The Book of Numbers speak for a period of seven days of uncleanness (Numbers 19, 11), but this command is no longer practiced by the rabbinic Judaism today, what shocks also greatly Beta Israel.
  11. In Arabic, the word masjid means mosque , and is borrowed from Aramaic masged, which derives from a proto-Semitic root meaning "to ask the forehead to the ground," recalling that it is a place of prostration. The term masgid seems borrowed from the Arabic word for mosque, but perhaps an independent origin, based on the common root.
  12. On the role of detailed dabtara, cf. Stephen Kaplan (1990), K. Selemay (1992) and W. Leslau (1957).
  13. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P.101.
  14. Children of the Queen of Sheba, P.24.
  15. The term Ayud (Jew) is used, however at the time to appoint other non-Christians, or "heretical" Christians. The glorious victories seem to speak well of the Beta Israel, but there remains a doubt. Even on that Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 18.
  16. Steven Kaplan, "Beta ESREL", in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed., Encyclopaedia aethiopica: AC (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2003), p.553. See also the English translation of the glorious victories of Amda-Syon , by GWB Huntingford, Oxford, Clarendon Press, p. 61.
  17. Children of the Queen of Sheba, P.51.
  18. Translated by CF Beckingham and GWBHuntingford, London, Hakluyt Society, 1954, pp. 54-55.
  19. This thesis is defended as probable or at least plausible by several authors, such as:
    • Paul B. Henze: Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, Palgrave, New Tork, 2000, ( ISBN 0312227191 )
    • Steve Kaplan: The Bete Israel (Falasha in Ethiopia: from Earliest Times to the Twentieth Century), New York University Press, new edition, 1994, ( ISBN 0814746640 )
    • Quirin James: The Evolution of the Ethiopian Jews: A History of the Bete Israel (Falasha) to 1920, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992, ( ISBN 0812231163 ).
  20. See the article: Ethiopian Christianity, the historian Stphane Ancel, 2002, the site of Clio.
  21. a and b are not found in the Pentateuch.
  22. At least until the twentieth century.
  23. Gerard Lucotte and Pierre Smets in Human Biology, Origins of Falasha Jews studied by haplotypes Of The Y chromosome, vol. 71 December 1999, pp. 989-993, [1]. The conclusions are the same for Zoossmann-Diskin A, Tich A, Hakim I, Goldwitch Z, Rubinstein A, Bonne-Tamir B, in their article "Genetic affinities of Ethiopian Jews," published May 27, 1991 in the Israel Journal of medical sciences [2] Finally, MF Hammer, AJ Redd, and Wood, MR Bonner, H. Jarjanazi, T. Karafet, S. Santachiara-Benerecetti, A. Oppenheim, MA Jobling, T. Jenkinsdagger, H. Ostrer, and B. Bonne-Tamir classify the Beta Israel in a completely separate group of Western Jewish populations, who have more connections with Middle Eastern populations. See their article "Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes" , published May 9, 2000 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
  24. There are a few examples of Christian self converted to the religion of the Old Testament, as the small group of San Nicandro , in southern Italy in the interwar period (group formally converted to Orthodox Judaism by Rabbis after the Second World War), or Black Hebrews in the USA.
  25. Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 19.
  26. According to a theory developed for example by Righteous Jews Honored by Falasha Supporters, AAEJ Press Release, 1981. - See also JA Quirin, The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopian History: Caste Formation and Culture Change (1270-1868), 1977, page 74.
  27. a and b children of the Queen of Sheba, 1994, p. 59.
  28. The Dembea is a subdivision of Gondar.
  29. Children of the Queen of Sheba, P. 62.
  30. These rabbis, Rabbi renowned German, Israel Hildesheimer of Eisenstadt (1820-1899).
  31. Joseph Halevy , Missions in Abyssinia, reprinted in The Jewish world, PP.279-280 and cited by The Children of the Queen of Sheba, p.67.
  32. Letter from Michael Aragawi, Beta Israel converted to Christianity in the management of the London Society, narrated by Stephen Kaplan "Quifu-Quen, The Great Famine of 1888-1892 & the Beta Israel (Falasha)," Volume XXXVI, P .70, quoted by the children of the Queen of Sheba, P.70.
  33. Children of the Queen of Sheba, P. 72.
  34. Children of the Queen of Sheba, PP. 80-82.
  35. Children of the Queen of Sheba, PP. 160-163.
  36. American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee
  37. See his book Igrot Hareiya or Igerot Reyiah, Part 2, published for the first time in 1923.
  38. Joseph Halevy , "Report to the Central Committee of the Alliance Israelite Universelle on the mission to the Falashas, presented at the meeting of July 30, 1868, the Jewish universe, p.89, quoted by the children of the Queen of Sheba , P.30.
  39. J Faitlovitch "Falashas Israelites," Bulletin of the Alliance Israelite Universelle , vol. LXVII, PP 96-100, quoted by The Children of the Queen of Sheba, p.30.
  40. Children of the Queen of Sheba, p.31.
  41. a , b , c , d and e Hagar Salamon , "Blackness in Transition: Decoding Racial Constructs-through Stories of Ethiopian Jews," in Journal of Folklore Research, Volume 40, No. 1 - see section
  42. The population of a large part of Ethiopia , the Eritrean or Somali are from a very ancient interbreeding between African peoples and peoples of southern Arabia. See on this subject "Genetics affinities of Ethiopian Jews," Israel Journal of Medical Sciences, Volume 27, PP. 246-250, or the study of Ornella Semino, Chiara Magri, Giorgia Benuzzi, Alice A. Lin, Nadia Al-Zahery, Vincenza Battaglia, Liliana Maccioni, Costas Triantaphyllidis, Peidong Shen, Peter J. Oefner, Lev A. Zhivotovsky, Roy King, Antonio Torroni, L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Peter A. Underhill, and A. Silvana Santachiara-Benerecetti published April 6, 2004 in The American Journal of Human Genetics [3].
  43. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 469.
  44. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 223.
  45. symbols reported by JG Abbink tje Falasha in Ethiopia and Israel: the problem of ethnic assimilation, Social Anthropologischer Papers, Volume XV, Nijmegen, ICSA, 1985, quoted by Daniel Friedman, the children of the Queen of Sheba, 1994, page 80. Note that the pot is already acknowledged as a symbol in the Falasha Universal Geography of Elisha Reclus , Hachette, 1884.
  46. Daniel Friedman, Children of the Queen of Sheba, 1994, p. 80.
  47. Children of the Queen of Sheba, PP. 90-92.
  48. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, p. 22.
  49. Throne Speech of Haile Selassie I. inaugurating the new parliamentary session, November 2, 1973: "Ethiopia strictly adheres to certain fundamental principles enshrined in the UN Charter and the Charter of the Organization of African Unity. For example, Ethiopia has always opposed the annexation of territories by force of arms. [...] Israel refused to withdraw from the territories occupied by force in 1967, Ethiopia broke off diplomatic relations with that state, until the Israeli government to withdraw from the territories belonging to other States. "
  50. In December 1976 , an Ethiopian delegation went to Moscow and signed a military assistance agreement with the Soviet Union. In April 1977, Ethiopia withdraws its military assistance agreement with the United States and expelled the military forces based in Ethiopia (based Kagnew).
  51. 300 000 deaths from Doctors Without Borders. See " Ethiopia: A famine foretold , "the site of MSF.
  52. Children of the Queen of Sheba, P. 106.
  53. GJ Abbink 'The Falasha in Ethiopia and Israel: the problem of ethnic assimilation, "in Social Anthropoligische Papers, Volume XV, Nijmegen, ICSA, 1985.
  54. Children of the Queen of Sheba, P. 110.
  55. Children of the Queen of Sheba, P. 112.
  56. " After 8-year downturn, up for second aliyah consecutive year , " Haaretz , 5 September 2010 by Nir Hasson.
  57. a and b Journal of Liberation 16/12/2010, " Israel opens the door to 8000 Ethiopian Jews , "by Delphine Matthieussent.
  58. [Landver flies to Ethiopia to resolve fate of Falash Mora http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishNews/Article.aspx?id=180898 ], an article by Ruth Eglash, dated 09/07/2010, online version of the Jerusalem Post.
  59. a , b , c and d Haaretz , Breaking the glass ceiling, 05/06/2005. See article.
  60. Matthew Wagner, "Ethiopians fight Christian proselytizers," Jerusalem Post of 18/10/2006.
  61. The passage in ulpan (school of Hebrew ) is doubled for the Beta Israel: 10 months instead of 5 for other immigrants.
  62. In 1999, 75% of adult immigrants could not read or understand Hebrew, according to a study by the Department of Immigration, quoted by BBC News, 17 November 1999. See article.
  63. Children of the Queen of Sheba, P. 237.
  64. Malka Shabtai, an anthropologist, cited by Haaretz , 13 June 2005 in the article "African Israelis / Ethiopians reject Israeli Society, as it has Rejected Them." See article.
  65. Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 345.
  66. It was noted the refusal by the Rabbinate conversion against young immigrants who followed the religious training yet, because they chose to study at secular schools in Israel.
  67. a and b Haaretz , June 13, 2005.
  68. 995.86% As a young Ethiopian immigrant was in the school system's religious state, according to a study by Stephen Kaplan and Hagar Salamon, 1998, quoted in The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 191.
  69. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 230.
  70. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, p. 358.
  71. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, p. 481.
  72. Sigd roughly meaning "prostration" in Amharic.
  73. T. Wagaw in 1993 estimated that over 90% of adults over 37 years are illiterate in their immigration. By cons it is estimated that 37% of people under 25 have attended school for six years or more. Cited by Ethiopian Jews in Israel, p. 115.
  74. According to Shlomo Mula, head of the Jewish Agency for the absorption of Ethiopian immigrants, quoted in an article by Amiram Barkat, "Ethiopian immigrants not Being Prepared for New Life in Israel", Haaretz from 29/05 / 2006.
  75. Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 492.
  76. The Ethiopian Jews in Israel, p.102.
  77. "Ethiopian Children cannot go to school in Or Yehuda while Politicians argues, " Haaretz , 09/04/2005
  78. Adamk Ilan, quoted by Haaretz , 13 June 2005 in the article "African Israelis / Ethiopians reject Israeli Society, as it has Rejected Them." See article.
  79. Military service lasts two years for women, men for three years.
  80. "Racism Alive and Well in Israeli society", Jerusalem Post , 22 March 2005.
  81. Ethiopian Jews in Israel, P. 355.
  82. According to the commission Navon, constituted after the scandal, the 1400 HIV cases in Israel, 550 is recorded among Ethiopian immigrants. See the report of the Committee on July 29, 1996.
  83. Cutbacks Threaten Falash Mura aliyah , by Ruth Eglash, 30 April 2009, Jerusalem Post.


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