Ethics

Demonstration to abolish child labor, New York , ¹May 1909.

Three issues building the "triangle of ethics" I want, I can, I do.

The Ethics (from Greek "Science moral "and living, habit, manners, character "and the Latin morality ^Definition

Subject of Ethics

The general ethics - we simply call the following ethics - establishes criteria to act freely in a convenient location and make the choice of conduct in respect of oneself and others. The purpose of ethics is thus itself a practical activity. This is not to acquire knowledge for himself, but to act with a sense of social responsibility action. It is now viewed as the foundation discipline of applied ethics , of individual ethics , the social ethics and different forms of specialized ethical issues that confront normative their particular field.

Differentiation of ethics with other disciplines

The relationship between morality and ethics are difficult because the distinction between these two terms themselves is different for different thinkers. In an "ordinary" meaning, the term ethics is synonymous with morality , and for a practice aimed at determining a consistent way to live in a habitat or relevant for life roles in humans (eg pursuit of happiness or virtue).

However, if the term "ethics" is synonymous with morality in a sense "ordinary", why the word "moral" does not it occurs only once in the Ethics of Spinoza? The reason is that morality is a set of rules "relating" fictionally built in absolute good and evil, as confirmed by its definition in the next paragraph, while ethics is precisely the moral rid of superstitious beliefs on absolutizing concerning his convictions and moralistic used as a weapon against the Others, dixit Constantin Brunner, German Jewish philosopher (1862-1937), Spinoza's spiritual heir.

A common distinction is meant by "moral" all standards specific to an individual, social group or people, at a specific time in its history and research ethics to call the property by conscious reasoning. Today, we use the term "ethics" generally to describe theoretical reflections on the value of practices and conditions of these practices, ethics is also a critical thinking on the morality of actions. We talk for example of "ethics committee" within scientific institutions or hospitals. Ethics would have its foundations in a so-called rational decision making from an open dialogue between individuals aware of knowledge and culture sometimes rich traditions and ideological codes like.

Another distinction is proposed by some contemporary philosophers ( Deleuze , Ricoeur , Comte-Sponville , Giuliani, Misrahi, etc..) to define morality as a set of tasks (categorical imperatives that command to do good posited as absolute, for example "Thou shalt not kill") and ethics as the realization of reasonable needs (natural tendency to look as good relative value - the search for happiness, which for example may legitimize certain medical procedures generally considered "immoral" as the euthanasia, abortion, organ donation, etc.)..

Morality is thus generally attached to a historical tradition and sometimes idealistic (like Kant ) that distinguishes between what is and what must be, as the dogma. While ethics is related to a contemporary tradition and sometimes materialistic (like Spinoza ) that seeks only to improve the perception of reality by a "reasonable" attitude in the pursuit of happiness for all.

• Thus, the law differs from morality and ethics in the sense that it does not define the value of acts, the right / wrong, good or bad. However, it defines what is permitted and forbidden by the powers of a culture in human society.
• Ethics for its part all the obligations that professionals undertake to ensure respect for practice complies with the code of ethics of the profession.

The various areas related to ethics

Ethics is first inseparable from the history and philosophy, so much so that it is still common to be confused with moral philosophy and religion. Indeed, it is sometimes thought that ethics is one of the main branches of philosophy , especially of moral philosophy. Ethics, in its contemporary applications is now inseparable from science.

Ethics is also closely linked to the meta-ethics , although mostly in the contemporary debate that we distinguish as clearly. The meta-ethics in fact is to analyze the nature of the statements, standards and methods of ethics. It is the discipline that allows a return to ethics reflect on itself.

Another large area is inseparable (at least in the eyes of the Western philosophical tradition) the policy or more specifically political philosophy. It is traditional in philosophy to consider the governance of the city as a natural and as an extension of ethical commandments. At a broader level, the areas of environment contribute to the development of ethics on actual basis.

Moreover, to a lesser extent, it is traditional to link ethics and philosophy of action ever since Aristotle , insofar as the theory of action focuses on some fundamental issues like the ethics ruling the agent's responsibility, intentionality of an action or definition of what is called an agent.

History of Ethics

Monument to honor West Point

Ethics is by no means always remained identical to itself. Instead, it has undergone many significant changes during its history. The Western ethics has undergone several major periods.

Ethics in the antiquity was dominated by the concept of "virtue" as well in Socrates than Plato , Aristotle , the Stoics and Epicurus. Thus, the good man is one who carries out its function, its telos. It is therefore fully realize the nature and what is human nature to achieve happiness.

The Middle Ages was based not only on ancient ethics, that of Plato and of Aristotle , but also on tradition biblical.

It is Descartes who first took her far distances with ancient ethics, which he deemed too "speculative . Drawing on a new metaphysics , he founded a corporation in a much more individual. The development of modern ethics continues with Kant and deontological ethics : a critical reflection on the conditions of possibility of moral emphasis on duty.

Our era saw development of applied ethics in relation to environmental and social concerns. In professional activities and governance, ethics establishes codes of behavior.

Moral Philosophy

Ethics is traditionally a subject fundamental philosophy that so often confounds even ethics in general with philosophical ethics or moral philosophy in particular.

Ethics of Ethics

The moral duty based on moral character of our actions by the concept of obligation. This type of morality is conceived independently of any consequences that may result from our actions. For example, according to Kant , we must not lie to prevent a murder, because the obligation to tell the truth is absolute and allows no special conditions .

Ethical Duties

A set of rules and having a priori status of moral obligations.

Examples:

• The Decalogue
• The Golden Rule or ethic of reciprocity

Ethics of Rights

This ethic is derived from human rights. This modern invention is originally attributed to Rousseau and establishes for the first time to man a moral order independent of the cosmos, nature. Now, no man stands more as an animal endowed with reason as in Aristotle , but being with the freedom to break away from nature and create another legality that natural is to ie that of man.

This principle of equality is only a right legal and unnatural.

proceduralism

This ethic is based on John Rawls and is based on pluralism. Rawls says we can no longer rely on a single notion common good. This then implies the establishment of rules rather abstract to allow a generality of differences.

Jrgen Habermas considers that a solution to a conflict is legitimate if and only if those affected by the conflict have agreed on this solution in terms of words and communication satisfactory. That's why we talk about discourse ethics or morality of communication.

Thus, the procedure that makes the solution is or is not legitimate.

So we return to the deontology.

The teleological ethics

Teleological ethics focuses on the goals and purposes of a decision. She opposes the deontological ethics of Kant. In that perspective, ethical reflection is based on the effects of an action, indeed any action can be judged good or bad only because of its consequences. Eg Aristotle developed a teleological ethics of happiness for him because "the Happiness is what characterizes good and perfect that it must always be possessed for himself and not for any other reason. "She gave birth to such utilitarianism in the Anglo-Saxon.

Consequentialism

In our actions, we often take into account the consequences of our actions. These consequences can be considered as possible criteria of our behavior, what makes this type of morality, a normative type. For a corporation such a behavior is moral if the consequences of an act are beneficial rather than negative. The evaluation of the morality of conduct is therefore based on what is observable, rather than the intent of a private nature and difficult to grasp.

Several types of consequentialism can be distinguished, according to the criterion that we choose to determine what is beneficial and what is harmful: the altruism , the egoism and utilitarianism.

Ethics and Values

In ethics, we commonly speak of values - which are of the order of Being and Welfare, which indicate the ideals to be pursued (Autonomy, life and health, justice) - the principles - which provide broad guidelines to action, that set of attitudes (Self-determination, respect for life, give everyone his due) - standards and rules - that determine the action, framing the decision (Free and informed consent, take "proportionate "respect for contracts) -.

The word value is the most general and most dynamic he first evokes philosophical before a fallout ethics. The word principle means a basic direction, inspiring action. The word rule means something more concrete, closer to the action. The principle is often indeterminate, and admits of various applications. The rule has a specific content.

The main principles are relatively few and stable rules can be numerous and variable. And Durand (1994) emphasizes the difficulty of presenting the ethics (or morality) in three points:

1. it is that it is not a separate sector of life, but a permanent feature of all behavior. Values, in fact, are implemented more or less explicitly in all behaviors and decisions. Thus the practice of medicine, nursing, social work, law, for example, inevitably involves ethical choices, choices of moral values;
2. it is the vocabulary that varies according to the authors. The words include, from one medium to another, different meanings or connotations;
3. it is that it eventually returns to philosophical reflection, which gave birth to a multitude of ethical theories more or less contradictory.

According to Durand (1994), three words come up frequently in the discourse on human action, ethics, morals, ethics, and they are sometimes taken as synonymous. Besides, historically the first two, they have been used very often for each other. Etymologically, the words ethics (Greek origin) and moral (Latin origin) refers to manners, morals analysis, reflections on human behavior. The word deontology (Greek deon-deonlos) also means the rules, duties and obligations. All three words refer to behavior, human action, decision-making. They cover what to do, what to do (duty, values), as opposed to what is done (custom).

Droz (Droz et al., 2006) defines ethics as a set of rationally structured explicit values that define good, fair and beautiful, by which one realizes himself, what does exist and act. It is the way to say how we should live and from which one must judge and decide. It is therefore an explicit system of values and argued that induce behavioral or social practices. So there are universal ethical (human rights) or unique ethical culture.

Bob Jickling (1996) proposes two approaches to ethics: ethics as a code, which tends to reproduce roles in social life. Requirements and values that inform them, tend to be taken for granted, making authority, and applicable in a wide range of contexts, and if we think ethics associated with a process to review and evaluate a system of values. So in this sense, ethics involves looking principles to guide moral behavior and evaluate them. We must first identify the values that can be challenged, existing within a community.

The organization values them, as a system, is an ethic, it gives meaning and coherence to the associated values (Sauv, Villemagne, 2006). Value (such as democracy or sustainable development) only makes sense that depending on the ethical field in which it operates. Among the values we find the fundamental values of order, corresponding to goals (eg, ecological balance), and order values instrumental for achieving these goals (such as liability). There are also abstract values (solidarity) and the values corresponding to objects, and also the values that are intrinsic (the nature or architectural heritage). A value is an enduring belief (Rokeach, 1979), a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to another mode of behavior or goal of life opposite or converging. A value system is an enduring organization of beliefs concerning desirable modes of conduct and notions of human existence.

Traditionally, the concept of value is used in two distinct ways (Rokeach, 1979), or we talk about value objects that possess or are possessed by those people. Values differ from attitudes (as well as other concepts such as needs, norms, interests) and are also less likely than the latter, they exceed the specific design of attitude objects and situations and dynamically are closer and more central to the needs that we identify people as individuals (Rokeach, 1979). Referring to what Audigier (1999) it is useless to try to determine a list of well established and consistent values, since in any situation, since we need to take a decision, we are dealing with values in contradiction with each other. But they define as a point of view from which we evaluate the strong sense of the term assessment, social actions, behaviors, or opinions.

Ethics of virtues

The virtue ethics is old. She sits at the crossroads between ancient morality, including Aristotelian and Stoic, and biblical wisdom. It was during the " patristic "(First Christian theology), then in medieval philosophy, including Scholastic , it reached its completion. In the eighteenth ^century , the virtues take a considerable place in the revolutionary imagination ( Robespierre ). Today, a number of philosophers take back for themselves, for example in France by Andre Comte-Sponville. Do not understand the "virtue" in the sense of a lady dressed in black and railing against the excesses and defects, on behalf of a moral self-righteous. "Virtue" from the Latin virtus more akin to the "virtuosity" of artists. It mobilizes a drive and a balance of opposites based on wisdom. But this does not mean asceticism or mortification.

The theory is based on four virtues formerly called "cardinal". "Prudence", the "strength" (or "courage"), "justice" and "temperance." This final formulation occurs XIII ^century , under the influence of Franciscan and Dominican orders Christians.

• Prudence is the key virtue: it is she who guides the decision and who weighs, depending on the responsibility of the contextual situation, consequences. It is not contrary to the risk, unlike the image we can worry. It is bold decisions that are prudent decisions.

• Force or the "courage" is the ability to stand firm against adversity. It also gives her the energy to engage in business.

• Temperance is the virtue which channels the disturbances. She is not opposed to the passions, but moderation of the passions.

• Justice is the consideration of behavior with others. It has an economic dimension (the meaning of sharing), a social dimension (respect for law) and politics (all equal). But it also has a critical function, when the apparent justice opposes ethics.

Christian tradition has added three virtues called "theological"

• Faith is participation in the knowledge God has of himself.

• The hope is that confidence in completing the story in a transformation and recreation of the world and people beyond death (see Jrgen Moltmann )

• The charity, which is love of neighbor, starting with the smallest and left behind.

Today, virtue is regarded as a quality that drives man and woman to go to excellence, best.

Meta-ethics

The meta-analysis of ethical concepts means the ethical basis of their assumptions epistemological and their significance in terms of philosophy. It is "above" Ethics (Meta in Greek) because its purpose is not to raise ethical standards but to analyze. It focuses for example on the nature of ethical norms as norms, to the foundations of these standards, the structure of ethical arguments, characteristics of ethical propositions etc.. The meta-ethics is actually as old as ethics, even if it is true that it is only since the ^twentieth century it became an independent discipline that focuses on a particular aspect in language of ethics. A good example of meta-ethics is the little article that Paul Ricoeur was drafted in 1985 for the Encyclopaedia Universalis: "Before the moral law: ethics."

Applied ethics

The Applied Ethics is a generic term for all the ethical issues related to a domain of human activity as the world of work, economy, science, governance and culture.

Ethics of consumption

The first ethical questions that arise regarding the consumption of goods and services within the provenance and clothing products. The international division of labor and rationalization of production costs pushed to their extreme in the context of globalization have led to deplorable situations an ethical standpoint (child labor, production of contaminating residues, selling harmful products health and the environment, poor working conditions of employees, etc.).. However, it is undeniable that the act of purchasing a good or service shall support more or less voluntary and more or less aware of an organization, a commercial company or industry and its production methods.

Wondering about the origin and making purchases can enroll in an ethical and humanistic. This approach resonates today with the development of fair trade.

Ethics in Food

The general ethical issues in the consumer (user selection, production, treatment of employees, etc..) Also apply to food choices, but the specific question and recurrent in this area concerns the exploitation of animals. That is to say, the exploitation of sensitive and intelligent creatures to satisfy the needs (justified or not) in humans.

Thus, in the name of ethics, have developed animal protection movement, the animal welfare movement and more specifically advocating vegetarianism , the veganism or antispcisme (a term popularized by Peter Singer , author of the article Ethics of the Encyclopdia Universalis ). This thinking is not new, throughout its history the ethical and nonviolent vegetarianism has been argued by many philosophers and thinkers such as Plutarch , Pythagoras , Leonardo da Vinci , Lamartine , Schopenhauer , Leo Tolstoy , Albert Einstein or Gandhi.

The fact that the bulk of food of animal origin are not necessary for human health and the many findings of ecological devastation of livestock bring new dimensions to the ethical consideration of animal exploitation in general and meat consumption in particular.

Ethics in Economics and Finance

Financial exchanges in the context of globalization economic reveal situations where ethics has applications. The greed and corruption as the risks of stock market manipulation are destabilizing characteristics of the investment.

Ethics is also one of eleven factors to be applied in the model of intelligence produced by the AFDIE (French association for business intelligence):

• Protecting privacy and personal data,
• Apply ethics demanding in the collection of information and practices influence
• Apply the same devotion to duty during the outsourcing of information and influence.

The ethics of trade and business activities

Ergonomic Ethics: A set of rules for teamwork, semi formalized by a working group to itself, to facilitate the achievement of targets a priori opposed (eg compliance behaviors and freedom initiatives, performance and results respect for persons, trust and control, etc..) but essential for agility and sustainability of organizations. (Source: R. Engelbrecht in the Making Track, Pearson Publishing)

The Ethics of IT

Social ethics and environmental

The negative impacts of the application of knowledge and scientific and technological advancements now asking the question of ethics in terms of individual and social responsibility in relation to the habitat of species, pollution and human prinit to future generations.

• Risk industrial , in the areas of bio-engineering, chemistry , the oil industry , the nuclear energy , food, transport ...
• Use of information technology , development of networks and information security.

The philosophy of Hans Jonas is the basis of the principles of sustainable development : a development that meets the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It is also to adopt a cautious attitude with respect to the impacts of technology. In the absence of scientific certainty, it is therefore to apply the precautionary principle.

For Rene Dubos , to address these global challenges need to "think global and act local" (hence the neologism "glocal").

General in terms of environmental ethics is applied. From the perspective of the human environment, we talk about sustainable development and in terms of business, we talk about corporate social responsibility. Metaphorically, we are talking about organizing a system of ethical governance based on three pillars. The governance of the human environment is then based on the economic pillar, the pillar and the ecological social pillar.

Social Ethics

Social ethics is the branch of ethics concerned not with individual actions but to the social groupings in general. Ethics and social policy, the Anglo-Saxon, followed by Quebec, placed at the heart of its thinking the notion of conflict of interest.

In France, social ethics is placed in the middle of Act 2002-2 with "Charter of Rights and Freedoms allowed" to guarantee that the person granted the use of its power to citizens (information value) This charter is reset when the host is a symbolic act.

The 12 basic rights:

• The same principle of discrimination
• The right to care, to appropriate support
• The right to information
• The principle of free choice of informed consent and participation of the person.
• The right of renunciation (say no)
• The right to the respect of family rights
• The right to protection
• The right to autonomy
• Principle support
• Right to exercise civil rights
• Right to religious participation
• Right to respect, dignity and privacy

Environmental Ethics

Resulted in environmental ethics and related to the three pillars of sustainable development of the many studies assessing the environmental impacts are used to understanding and orientation of human activities. Not only in developed countries but also in developing countries, the traditional business models are evolving toward a local ethical perception and globalized environment. This is a view of adaptation that industrial activities and polluting recognize the cultural and environmental ethics. Thus, in its civil and societal context, understanding the challenges of globalization is used to explain and identify ethical human activities with the biophysical environment.

Gosseries (1998) combines the concept of environmental ethics that protect the environment. However, the latter took in the broad sense, covers several objectives, including: preserving a clean environment (environmental protection in the strict sense), natural (nature conservation) and diversified (biodiversity conservation). Furthermore the author assigns three tasks to environmental ethics:

1. On the one hand, question the legitimacy of what is known - in the broadest sense - protecting the environment;
2. Second, the ecological crisis was an opportunity for a renewed questioning of our systems. The question of the moral status of animals, plants, viruses, or ecosystems have received little response so far very satisfactory, while yet it is the ethical question perhaps the most radical has reactivated the crisis Environmental;
3. Finally, the environmental protection updates and intergenerational justice issues internationally.

Godard (1999) is more critical, and according to that formatting ethics has no advantages in the environmental field, in terms of ability to support the agreement on standards of conduct or set of practical guidelines. The origin of the failures come from knowledge about the world of things (scientific uncertainties and controversies) and hesitations about the normative benchmark. Moreover, the world of objects, nature, environment, do not provide strong support to set reliable benchmarks universal value nor to formulate ethical standards and policies that could win for themselves at all and for all to see. Thus, he proposes (Godard, 1999) ethical reflection should be more humble and mindful of its validation by actual concrete human communities, without giving way to the economy, economic preferences and ethical choices are determined not not in the same way. Through analysis of several works of authors - Sachs Edelman & Hermitte; Brown-Weiss-Remond Gouilloud; Larrre; Gosseries -; Godard (1999) points out that historically it is in a context of social criticism and controversy Basic science that the ethical dimension of environmental problems has been introduced. This work led him to classify writers working on the issue of the environment into two camps: on one hand there are those who approach the issue from the concepts and methodological tools available in their disciplines and fold on environmental issues classics like the sound management of scarce resources, the class struggle and the contradictions of capitalism, or technical development on the other hand there are those who see it as an intellectual challenge and a challenge to society, requiring a new treatment. Among the latter category we find, among others, Lucie Sauv Villemagne and Carine (2006) who performed a categorization of the major trends in ethics. This work provides benchmarks on their basis, namely, self-centered (self-centered), anthropocentric - centered on the human race-, sociocentric - centered on the social group, biocentric - centered on each living species and the all of them-, ecocentric - focused on all living and nonliving interrelated within ecosystems or living environments - or a combination thereof. Although the list is exhaustive, we identify eleven different streams:

• Deep Ecology and the ethics of deep ecology;
• The Land Ethic and the ethics of the biotic community;
• Social ecology;
• Ecofeminism;
• The ethics of environmental responsibility;
• The ethics of sustainable development;
• Environmental citizenship and eco-citizenship;
• The ethics of social dialogue;
• Environmental Ethics critical type;
• Bioethics;
• The ethics of environmental justice.

Among the ethical reprons that of sustainable development. Note that this current is part of the anthropocentric ethical (Sauv & Villemagne, 2006), in which the human being is the center of morality, usually corresponding to the received view of morality, human beings (because they are reasonable, free and conscious of being) are considered as ends in themselves: the field of morality and of humanity are coextensive (Larrre, 2006). The Environmental Ethics and Sustainable Development is based on four principles (Prades, 1995):

1. Humans are the centrality of the planet, this translates into a responsibility for safeguarding and development of life on the planet;
2. Humans are the progression of humanity and thereby "manage their relationship with the world as good administrators;
3. Human beings must fulfill three essential duties: autonomy, solidarity and the management of the world;
4. The principle of sustainable development should "guide the duty and the ideal of human management of the planet."

Under this approach overlooks the human nature which it uses resources efficiently so as not to hinder economic growth, seen as an essential condition of human welfare (Sauv & Villemagne, 2006). For Droz (Droz et al., 2006) an ethic that ensures a long-term - for the planet and its inhabitants - may not be sustainable if it is based on an ethos based on global consensus. This ethic, saying global feed of the globalization process, which requires the establishment of a global society, and leads to reduce the differences between the multiple world views and demands to agree on a common value system. The resulting ethos of four realizations:

1. anthropological awareness - discovering unity in diversity -;
2. environmental awareness - discovering human beings as living with other mortals, even a living sphere;
3. civic awareness - responsibility and solidarity with other human beings and the Earth -;
4. spiritual awareness of the human condition - essential place in the work of thought, understanding-. Ethics must inspire at all levels, education on the environment through our relationship with the Earth, with other human beings and all living beings. It is therefore an ethic of solidarity, democratic participation, recognition of otherness and difference, pluralism, respect for minority rights and diversity of traditions, cultures and natural environments.

Animal Ethics

Many contemporary movements claiming, as a result of Jeremy Bentham and Arthur Schopenhauer , ethics towards animals. There are ethical movements , who are demanding rights for animals, as well as consequentialist positions, such as animal liberation movements . In practical terms, we can distinguish radical movements (which require the utmost respect for animal life) and more moderate movements (which do not preclude the use of animals by man, but claim that animals are treated with more respect) ^, .

Other ethical issues in science

Ethics in Health

Fields as diverse as biology applied to medicine, vegetarianism , the vaccination , care, genetic engineering , sequencing the human genome , the food security , the euthanasia , the abortion , cultural psychology, the reproductive health The treatment of mental disorders and disability , the surgery , the patenting of medical discoveries, pharmaceutical, or risk management epidemic (eg HIV / AIDS ) or a crisis plan for a pandemic or preparing an individual and collective possible pandemic influenza (type avian flu or H1N1 ) poses many ethical questions .

The lines of distinction between metaethics, normative ethics and applied ethics are often blurry. For example, the problem of abortion on applied ethics since it involves a type of controversial behavior. However, it depends on more general normative principles, such as the right of self-conduct and the right to live, according to which we can interpret the morality of this procedure. The problem is also based on meta-ethical questions like "where do the rights? And "what kinds of individuals have rights? .

Ethics in the historical profession

In general, the trades of historian and journalist require some ethics.

Several celebrities have dealt with this issue, as the historian Marc Bloch and the philosopher Paul Ricoeur (in terms of remaking the memory ). Ethics is one of the central ideas of Marc Bloch on the profession of historian .

Professional ethics of the historian has consequences in terms of historical methodology and approach to historical truth.

In the case of the Second World War , this ethical requirement is unique. This question does not come from those who write the history , historians, but the company as demand for the History of WWII is a social demand .

Indeed it appears several manifestations of the duty to remember :

• Introduction of Day deportation ,
• Contest of the resistance and deportation ,
• Recently established by the Council of Europe to a Europe Day in schools - to commemorate the Holocaust and prevent crimes against humanity.

References

See also

Bibliography

• The Nicomachean Ethics ( Aristotle )
• Ethics , Spinoza
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• What ethics? Robert Misrahi, Armand Colin, 1997
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• Construction of social man. Essay on democracy disciplinary Francis Farrugia, Syllepse, Paris, 2005.
• What are ethics, Rene Villemure, Newsletters reflective of the Quebec Institute of Applied Ethics.
• Animal ethics, Jean-Baptiste Jeangne Vilmer , 2008, Coll. Ethics and moral philosophy, Presses Universitaires de France.
• Kant and the chimpanzee - Testing on human beings, morality and art, Georges Chapouthier , Belin, Paris, 2009.
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Related articles

External Links

• (En) Centre for Research Ethics at the University of Montreal
• (En) Quebec Institute of Applied Ethics
• (En) The National Consultative Ethics

• Philosophy portal
• Law portal

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