Environmental

View of the Moon , one of the first visions of the Earth as a finite and fragile.

The conservation of nature, the issue of environmental protection.

The environment is defined as "all elements (biotic or abiotic) that surround an individual or species , some of which contribute directly to meet their needs " .

The concept of environment natural , often designated by the word "environment" has evolved in recent centuries and decades. The environment is now understood as all natural components of the Earth , like the air , the water , the atmosphere , the rocks , the plants , the animals , and all the phenomena and interactions down there, that is to say everything about the man and his activities.

In XXI ^century , protecting the environment has become a major issue, along with the necessary sense of its degradation is both global and local, because of human activities polluting. Preserving the environment is one of the three pillars of sustainable development. It is also the seventh of the eight Millennium Development , considered by the UN as "crucial to the success of other goals outlined in the Millennium Summit Declaration" .

Linguistics

Etymology

You can find "environemenz" in French from 1265 in the sense of "circuit outline" and then from 1487 in the direction "action environment" . Two dictionaries in the nineteenth ^century attest a loan to English environment .
The word comes from the verb surround, which means to surround action. Itself is a denomination of about, which means around ^, .

Meaning

The word environment is polysemous , that is to say, it has several different meanings. Having the basic sense of what surrounds it may be part of the meaning of life, neighborhood , atmosphere, or context (in language ) , while the concept of environmental interest in nature under human activities, and interactions between man and nature . We must also differentiate the ecology, which is the science whose object relations of living beings with their environment and with other living beings , that is to say, the study of ecosystems.

The concept of environment now includes the study of natural environments, human impacts on the environment and actions taken to reduce them.

Issues

While he was deteriorating, the environment has become a kind of common good , and was also included as life support necessary for all species other than humans. As heritage to reasonably operate in order to bequeath to future generations , it is the support of many issues aesthetic, ecological, economic and socio-cultural and speculative (as carbon sinks for example) and ethical.
The UN points out in his report that GEO-4 degradation "undermines development and threatens future progress in developing" (...) and "threatens all aspects of human welfare. It has been demonstrated that environmental degradation is linked to human health problems, including certain types of cancers, vector-borne diseases, more and more of zoonoses, nutritional deficiencies and respiratory disorders. "
The same report points out that the environment provides the bulk of natural resources vital for everyone (water, air, soil, food, fiber, medicines, etc.). and Economy; "Almost half the jobs worldwide depend on fisheries, forestry, or agriculture. The unsustainable use of natural resources, including land, water, forests and fisheries, can threaten individual livelihoods and local economies, national and international. The environment can contribute greatly to the development and well-being, but can just as easily increase the vulnerability of man, generating insecurity and human migration during storms, droughts, or management ecologically deficient. Ecological constraints encourage cooperation, but also contribute to the creation of tensions or conflicts " .

History

The history of the environment is a subdivision of the story that interests more and more researchers. Its purpose is to study retrospectively the state of the environment at different times and its interactions with human activities .

Before the ^nineteenth century

Awareness of the existence of an environment developed by vague and differently at different times, regions and human cultures .

Some interpretations animistic or religious, such as Buddhism , have favored a certain respect for life , natural resources and landscapes. This respect was motivated primarily by religious beliefs, rather than by a genuine desire to protect natural areas. Indeed, the concepts of economic, urban and civic as we define them today do not seem to have been identified by anthropologists or by historians.

In the nineteenth ^century

Yellowstone National Park.

Svante Arrhenius.

In the nineteenth ^century in the West, the romance has highlighted the beauty of wild landscapes, sometimes in opposition to the landscapes and the misery of the worlds workers and industrialists. In extolling the beauties of nature, the Romantics were aware that the property was valuable and should be preserved. It is through this interest in the landscape that human societies will begin to take into account the environment .

The United States created the status of national park , with President Abraham Lincoln on 30 June 1864 and the Yosemite Valley became the first protected natural site in the world . The Yellowstone National Park in 1872 became the first national park . France, in 1906 , vote its first law on the protection of the landscape. At that time, quite the landscape, not the ecosystem that guide the choices of elected officials to protect the sites, as shown by example the classification of loops of the Seine, painted by the impressionists .

In 1896, Arrhenius developed the embryo of the first environmentalist theory by studying the effect of increasing the amount of carbon dioxide ( _CO2 ) into the atmosphere in his article On the influence of acid carbon dioxide in the air at ground temperature He cites water vapor and CO ₂ as a greenhouse gas emissions, and even uses the term. It offers some calculations showing the temperature rise according to the elevation of the concentration of CO ₂ , he hypothesizes the relationship between changes in concentration over the geological ages, explaining the temperature variations corresponding.

In the twentieth ^century

The Jacques Cousteau , a great popularizer of environmental problems.

From the late ^nineteenth century and during much of the ^twentieth century , global development is hard. The industrial revolution and the strong economic growth promote heavy industry and highly consuming natural resources. The many conflicts are aware of the scarcity of certain resources, or even locally exhausted.

The first industrial disasters and ecological visible ( oil spills , polluted air and waterways) educate the public and some policy makers to protect ecosystems.

With the industrial revolution and the era of coal that air pollution has become the most visible and obvious.

The perception of the environment has also increased significantly with better dissemination of scientific knowledge and understanding of natural phenomena. The discovery and exploration of new environments ( Arctic , Antarctic , underwater world) have highlighted the fragility of some ecosystems and how human activities affect them . In June 1992 , at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , the environment is defined as a common good and public good . Since the 1990s, attitudes are changing very quickly to get closer to our perception of the environment today.

However, the inclusion of environmental decisions and environmental practices differ greatly from one country to another. In developing countries , where public concerns are very different from those of developed countries, the protection of the environment is a much more marginal in society .

Art and Environment

Animals and natural landscapes were often represented in art. Here, aurochs in the cave of Lascaux.

Since almost the beginning of the art , the environment has been a source of inspiration for mankind. Representations of animals or landscapes punctuate the history of art , and it is not an era that is an exception to the rule .

The landscapes are an essential part in the art in the Far East , particularly China and Japan , but it was not until the Renaissance in Europe to see the landscapes become more important in the paint . Many painters are qualified landscapers, among both romantic and among the Impressionists.

Later, environmental factors are still very present in new forms of art, like the photo , and later the cinema. More recently, artists or personalities use art to raise awareness for environmental protection: the case for example of Al Gore , who made a film An Inconvenient Truth , or photographer Yann Arthus- Bertrand.

Environmental Science

The science has grown considerably over the last century. Scientific knowledge has advanced greatly, particularly in the environmental field. Some subjects specially dedicated to the environment, which did not exist until recently there have even emerged as the ecology .

A balloon , a recent tools used to collect environmental data.

The development of new technical means of measuring instruments and observation, has made great strides in the knowledge that we had the environment, whether in the functioning of living and interacting with their environment, of ecosystems. Advances in physics and chemistry have enabled us to understand how plants and more generally of living bodies. The advance of science has led to greater measurability of human impacts on the environment, which also comes a greater awareness.

Environmental issues have risen from local issues such as protection of a species , to global problems ( hole in the ozone layer , global warming , for example). The need for global data has therefore emerged, resulting in the need to pool the data . By necessity, the monitoring (surveillance program) develops environmental today worldwide , aided by technical advances, political and ideological. The United Nations provides a framework for international work: UNEP , as well as international conferences and summits, such as that of Rio , allowing researchers from diverse backgrounds to pool their knowledge. Environmental issues having recently become global, it is essential to understanding the scientific research in a comprehensive manner, rather than local .

Many countries or groups of countries also have communities of stakeholders, indicators and researchers specializing in environmental issues, with programs sharing and knowledge exchange .

Human impacts on the environment

The idea of a degradation of the environment in which humans live on earth has become a large majority in the late ^twentieth century. More than an idea, the facts demonstrate that the changing environment is representative of a degradation of habitat due to human activity.

To measure this degradation, one can use several indicators:

• the pollution apparent, that is to say traces of compounds synthesized by humans in natural environments: soil, air and water . These indicators are more commonly referred to by other names, such as water quality for the presence of pollution in water, or air quality for the presence of pollutants in the air;
• depletion of natural resources, renewable or not;
• loss of biodiversity , which is even considered a key indicator of the state of the environment .

A report by the OECD has the status of environmental issues and has an associated "level of concern." This study shows that human impacts on the environment are many and varied. Almost all components of the environment are affected by human activities.

These environmental impacts are related to several factors, including those mentioned most often are the demographics and economic development. Indeed, the link between population and pollution is evident: the local human impacts are proportional to the number of inhabitants of a region, and it is the same for the number of inhabitants on Earth ^, . But demography is not the only factor in this equation. The level of economic development, lifestyle, climate and a multitude of factors play a very important role in environmental impacts , leading many scholars to play down the role of demography overpopulation and environmental problems in ^, .

Soils

Problems related to erosion.

The problems related to soils are often local problems. We talk about regression and degradation when soil loses its quality or properties change . They can be divided into two categories:

• problems related to erosion. Erosion is a natural phenomenon, but it can be disastrous when it is caused by man. May be caused by certain techniques of agriculture as monoculture of intensive agriculture or irrigation on some soil types, techniques of farming as overgrazing , or deforestation (roots often contribute to stabilize the soil and prevent erosion), it may have the effect of landslides , promote desertification , the aridity or threats to biodiversity ;
• change problems of soil quality. It might involve salinization , often due to agricultural techniques, or direct pollution of ground from industrial or individual. The soil in question may then become infertile, and hostile to certain plant or animal species and affect the diversity of organisms inhabiting the soil.

Water

According to the OECD report , three points are of particular concern for water. This is the water consumption and resource depletion, pollution of surface water and groundwater pollution.

Water resource

Management of water as a natural resource is a concern for many states. The OECD report describes this as a problem requiring urgent attention . Also according to the report, many people live in areas subject to water stress. In 2030, in the absence of effective measures to safeguard drinking water resources, there could be 3.9 billion people affected by water stress, 80% of the population of the BRIC ( Brazil , Russia , India , China ). This shortage is exacerbated by increasing population and therefore needs water for drinking or agriculture .

The warming would also have a major impact on water resources. Regions such as Central Asia , the Sahel region of Africa or the Great Plains of the United States could experience a dramatic drying up for people, their water supply, and agriculture , as recalled in the studies of the UNFCCC.

This lack of water in the world seems inevitable , and promises far-reaching consequences on human activities (agriculture, development, energy), and international diplomatic relations . Indeed, the stakes are increasing around the water essential to the survival of a population, it is also good for agriculture, through the irrigation , production of hydro power . The rivers do not usually limited to a single state, they have become issues geopolitical strategic determinants at the source of many conflicts. Most states are aware of these high stakes, as evidenced by the regular holding of the World Water Forum .

Water Quality

Litter type household waste are often indicators of other pollutants such as heavy metals and microbes , thereby creating serious problems of public health.

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Beach after a spill.

Listing overgrowth of filamentous bacteria ( Sphaerotilus natans ), induced by organic pollution and industrial chronicle of a river.

Water scarcity is not the only concern to have vis--vis the management of water resources. The evolution of quality and degree of pollution are also worrisome . Pollution of fresh water are found in seas and oceans, the water cycle , and are thus aggravate the marine pollution.

Water pollution can be of various origin and nature and varied . It can be:

• physical, which itself may be thermal or radioactive. The thermal pollution is mainly due to industries that use water as coolant. Causing a significant warming of rivers concerned, it can lead to local extinction of some animal or plant species . Radioactive pollution, which may occur during a nuclear accident , is extremely persistent. Its long-term effects are unknown today ;
• Chemical extremely diverse, it is caused by the release of various chemicals from industry, agriculture or domestic effluents. The main chemical pollution are:
  • pollution from agriculture and certain industries. Strong consumer of chemicals , agriculture has a significant impact on aquatic environments. The use of pesticide products, extremely harmful to living things, causes the release of these substances in aquatic environments, underground or surface, causing the death of some animal species . The nitrates and phosphates , contained in large amounts in the fertilizer, causing problems of eutrophication. The strong growth of bacteria or algae surface, which are in nitrates and phosphates elements necessary for their development, leading to a lack of oxygen dissolved in water, leading ultimately to the destruction of all life animal or plant below the surface ,
  • pollution with heavy metals like lead , the mercury , the zinc or arsenic. Drawn largely from industrial waste, they are not biodegradable. Present throughout the food chain , they covered accumulate in organisms ,
  • pollution to acid , from acid rain are also harmful ,
  • pollution to drug substances. A very large number of drug molecules are not fully assimilated by the body and are therefore discharged into sewer. In the absence of specific treatments, they are found in natural aquatic environments, with consequences for the environment and human health are still poorly understood . Studies are underway to measure the impacts of these substances,
  • pollution with hydrocarbons such as oil spills or discharges wild. Spectacular sea, they are also frequent in urban areas, or they may represent up to 40% of water pollution ,
  • pollution with PCBs : used mainly in electrical transformers, capacitors, and as insulators because of their excellent dielectric properties, these substances will store in the fat of living organisms and can be toxic and carcinogenic ;
• Organic : the pollution is pollution the most "natural", but also the oldest. Indeed, in the absence of treatment, a city of 100,000 inhabitants rejects 18 tons of organic material per day into its sewers . This material, although biodegradable , is not without its impact so far. Sudden high discharges into rivers can lead to the suffocation of ecosystems aquatic those most concerned are the fish , then at higher concentrations, the rest of the fauna and aquatic flora;
• Microbiological : denotes this term as pollution by viruses , bacteria and parasites. Mainly contained in the feces , these germs can cause serious illness in those who ingest .

Air

Air pollution over Paris.

Case of smog in New York due to ozone and particulate matter.

Air pollution or air pollution, is a point source pollution that can affect local or global. The term "air pollution" generally means the direct or indirect introduction in ambient air (except for confined spaces) by man of any substance that may have harmful effects on human health and / or the environment as a whole .

As for water, air pollution may be of various nature and origin and varied. There are different types of pollution :

• chemical gases toxic , mainly from the combustion (from industry or engines, for example), including:
  • the ozone , which although a natural component of certain layers of the atmosphere , is considered a pollutant with harmful effects on health ( asthma , upper respiratory tract irritation ...) when present in the lower atmosphere ^, ,
  • gases from combustion, such as sulfur dioxide , the oxides of nitrogen , the carbon monoxide , the hydrogen sulfide and some other greenhouse gas emissions ;
• the dust , or more generally suspended particulates and VOCs , primarily from public works, cleaning or other ;
• the greenhouse gas emissions , which are the main carbon dioxide , the methane , but also some fluorinated gases , from combustion, transportation , and farms , and industries ;
• the heavy metals , from different specific industries, including the arsenic , the lead , the zinc , the copper , the chromium , the mercury and cadmium are the main .

The effects of this pollution may be regional or global. Regionally, we can have:

• a direct effect of toxicity on flora, fauna or men, in the case of toxic gases, among others. Heavy metals, suspended particles and gases from the combustion are known hazardous effects on organisms . During heavy pollution, pollutants can darken the sky, reducing photosynthesis , and may affect the intensity of rainfall and local meteorology, this is the case for example of the Asian brown cloud ;
• a change in the composition of air, resulting in an accumulation of pollutants in rain, can cause acid rain , with disastrous effects on flora local and aquatic biota.

At the global level, the effects of air pollution are important, and have impacts on the atmosphere and climate of the entire globe. The two main effects of this pollution are:

• the hole in the ozone layer. Historically, this is one of the first awareness of the overall effects that human activity can have on the planet. Due to chlorine gas and halogen, in particular the CFCs and halons , the hole has been discovered in the early 80s. It has significant impacts on human health, fauna and flora, including through the ultraviolet , which are no longer filtered by the stratospheric ozone . Following a drastic reduction of these gases because of their progressive ban their use has been divided by 8 to 20 years, and the hole in the ozone layer has continued to grow and is expected to close around 2050 ;

Temperature curves for the last two millennia, according to various studies.

• the warming climate , defined by the Secretary General of the UN as a major issue of our time , is most likely due to a massive release of greenhouse gas emissions of human origin . Involving very long process, this warming could have a material adverse effect on biodiversity , sea levels and ocean currents worldwide, and could cause or contribute to the destruction of ecosystems , the desertifications or severe climatic disruptions to local (droughts, floods, cyclone intensity ...) . The consequences affect a majority of the world's population and would be widespread and generally negative .

Biodiversity

Periglenes bufo , frog of Costa Rica, extinct since 1989 approximately. His death is attributed to climate change.

Human activities have a major impact on biodiversity , that is to say on the future of living species, animal and plant species. The current extinction rate of species is 100 to 1 000 times the average found in the natural history of the evolution of the planet. In 2007 , the IUCN has estimated that a species of bird in eight, one mammal on four, one amphibian, three and 70% of all plants are at risk ^, . This mass extinction in modern times is often referred to by the name of the Holocene extinction.

The origin of this mass extinction of species is mainly human , and particularly since the 1500s, where human influence has increased considerably.

Abstract classes of the red list of IUCN 2006.

Overhunting and overfishing are the cause of the disappearance of threats or factors in several species, but it is the destruction and degradation of natural habitat that has been the most important consequences. The human impact of rising natural environments through deforestation , soil sealing, farming and ranching, urbanization of coastal areas , introduction of invasive species, but also the pollution of waters and soils and the climate are all factors that reduce or destroy the habitat of some species, sometimes causing their demise.

Biodiversity is the subject of international study led by the United Nations, through a group of experts: the IPBES . It is considered an important indicator, whose degradation would be significant to the health of the planet, but also for the well-being . The preservation of biodiversity is also a target of the Millennium Development .

Natural Resources

A natural resource is an element found in nature , or otherwise exploited by humans, and may be renewable or nonrenewable . In a quantitative approach, we speak of natural capital.

The fishing is partly responsible for the depletion of fish resources.

The depletion of natural resources is considered problematic and a threat to the environment and human activities , whether renewable natural resources .

For nonrenewable resources such as fossil fuels and minerals , the impact of their extraction on the environment is relatively low in the short term. It is their use, which often produces significant pollution, and depletion which are a source of concern socio-economic development. Indeed, some of these resources are an important component of the human and economic activity. Extraction, continually increasing, leading to an alarming reduction of reserves , which poses problems for future generations to raw materials.

Ecological disasters

Wreck of the Amoco Cadiz : oil spills are often the cause of environmental disasters.

The appearance of certain types of industry and new technologies during the ^twentieth century has made possible accidents or actions with major consequences on men and on multiple areas of environment, while receiving areas Geographic more or less extensive. Some of these accidents, some major industrial disasters or some nuclear accidents , can affect entire ecosystems and cause serious adverse effects on the environment. This is known as environmental disaster or environmental ^, . The term is sometimes used to denote, not an event but an action with significant adverse effects on the environment and constant . The theme has been particularly widely used in the media to talk about the ecological impact of Three Gorges Dam .

Effects on human health

The degradation of the environment have important effects on the health and human quality of life of populations ^, , as evidenced by studies on the subject and the various agencies to study the relationship between health and the environment . The quality of the environment - particularly in densely populated regions - has become a real problem of public health.

The link between health and environment has taken all its importance since the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 , the protection of the environment is then seen as a necessary step for global public health policies . This link is usually referred to as environmental health and is studied by environmental medicine and the field of health risks.

The areas of environmental pollution which can have the worst impacts on populations are water and air , resource essential to life. Soil pollution can also generate longer-term health problems.

Water and air can be vectors of products toxic , CMR , non- biodegradable , allergenic or eutrophying but also viruses , bacteria and other pathogens that have direct pathological effects in the short, medium or long term, agencies Live .

Technical Environmental Protection

In recent years, technical means have been developed to adapt the methods to industrial impacts of human activity on the environment. These means may be technical, but also legislative and normative. At the international level, agreements like the Kyoto Protocol imposes emission maximum quotas in terms of greenhouse gas emissions . Other agreements regulate more specific points, such as protection of a place , an endangered species, or prohibition of a substance .

Effluent treatment

Plant wastewater treatment in Australia.

In developed countries , the waste , whether liquid or gaseous , are mainly treated. These effluents may originate from industry or individuals.

In most rich countries, the effluent is treated when pollutants. For water, individuals are equipped with septic tanks or connected to the sewer. The liquid waste then pass through a treatment plant before being released into the wild. For industries, the legislation imposes quality standards for discharges. Industries have their own treatment plant, or are they also connected to the sewer.

Regarding the air, there is also standards-imposing process emissions. These standards are however very dependent on existing techniques, according to the principle of best available technology .

The situation is very different in developing countries. Most effluents are not treated at all, by lack of resources, or absence of binding legislation. Environmental issues are really important; untreated effluents have a strong negative impact, not only the environment but also on people's health .

Waste Management

The man has a strong impact on the environment via waste. It is estimated that the whole of humanity produces between 3.4 and 4 billion tons of waste per year, or about 600 kg per year per person . And that number is steadily increasing .

As for waste, lack of waste management is common in poor countries, causing negative impacts on the environment and human health.

Waste incinerator located in Saint-Ouen.

To eliminate waste, it is first necessary to collect. Then there are various techniques to eliminate them :

• storage, or burial in landfills : in general it is preferable to store only the final waste such as waste incineration;
• the incineration : widely used as inexpensive, it essentially involves treating the fumes can be very harmful. This technique can be used to energy recovery ;
• the pyrolysis or gasification , which also allow an energy recovery of waste, and also require a flue gas treatment;
• the anaerobic digestion or biogas : burying the organic waste and depriving them of oxygen , organic matter ferments and gives off methane. This gas can then be burned to produce energy or be distributed in the network of city gas;
• the recycling , which has the advantage of reducing the consumption of raw materials for the manufacture of new goods, which minimizes the environmental impact of waste.

To minimize the environmental impact of waste, often referred to the technique of three Rs :

• Bringing down the amount of products that reach end of life;
• R eUse products or parts thereof which would otherwise become waste;
• R eCycle materials .

Natural Resource Management

Management of natural resources is an environmental issue to the forefront .

In order to save non-renewable resources , and conserve renewable resources , management techniques were implemented. In the case of paper, some labels certify sustainable management of forests , certifying that the operation complies with the growth rates of trees and do not contribute to deforestation. For many other resources, labels exist, certifying sustainable management techniques. For fishing or hunting regulations impose quotas to meet the pace of renewal of animal species . For plant or animal species threatened or fragile, it is possible to provide them some protection through parks.

In this area, efforts are still to large to ensure sustainable management of the majority of resources we use. It is for this reason that the OECD has made a priority .

Protection of habitats and species

Nature reserves can protect specific environments, here, a wetland floodplain, the reserve of Mary stopper Belgium.

In order to preserve biodiversity , many methods have been developed to protect natural habitats and species that live there.

The nature reserves , which exist in many countries around the world as to preserve ecosystems threatened or rare by limiting urbanization and human activities in the affected areas . For endangered species, the IUCN draw up and update a list of red lists species threatened with extinction. Supported by international conventions such as the Washington Convention , measures are taken for their preservation.

More recently, the understanding of animal species has led to the creation of biological corridors , which link the natural environment between them, thus promoting the migration and dispersal of species .

Energy Efficiency

The best way to reduce its environmental impact is to reduce the sources of impacts such as energy consumption . This issue has been declining in many ways by businesses and individuals, with the goal of reducing energy consumption for the same work. In most developed countries , this issue has led to lower the energy intensity , which is the ratio between final energy consumption and GDP .

It is the aim, inter alia, the approach negawatt , which relies primarily on common sense, and recommends a three-step procedure : energy moderation (avoiding waste), a href = "% C3% Efficacit A9_% C3% A9nerg% C3% A9tique"> energy efficiency, and finally, replacement of fossil fuels by renewable energies. This approach can reduce the impacts associated with energy consumption of a given activity.

Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions has become a major global issue for the fight against global warming , and represent a promising future . Some countries have seen the emergence and progression of these energies in recent years, although they remain marginal in most countries .

Renewable energies include the relatively new techniques, such as solar thermal , the solar photovoltaics , but also other forms of energies that have long been used in other forms, such as biomass , the wind The geothermal and hydropower .

Shares of Environmental Protection

In response to the growing negative impacts on the environment, and partly by the growing interest in the environment in society, governments have developed or implemented laws or technical standards in To reduce the negative impacts of human activity on the environment.

Economic Models

The economic model of society, the consumption of energy, raw materials , and by technical progress , is very closely linked with the impacts on the environment and its protection. For many, adopting a different economic model would reduce our impacts ^, : the two most commonly mentioned are that of sustainable development and that of the decay .

Sustainable Development

Scheme of sustainable development: the confluence of three concerns, saying "the three pillars of sustainable development."

The term sustainable development appears for the first time in a report by the IUCN published in 1980. The English translation of the term Sustainable Development should be sustainable development, but the term sustainable development was preferred. This is the Brundtland Report which does lead to the foundation of sustainable development, which gives the standard definition: "development that meets the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their .

As detailed in the Brundtland Report, this implies a development that is both livable (ecologically sustainable and socially just) viable (economically and environmentally sustainable) and fair (socially just and economically viable), relying in this on this often called the three pillars of sustainable development: economic, social and environmental .

The idea of sustainable development means that we must not make the Earth warmer than it can give. This involves the use of renewable energies , the recycling for materials whose stock is not renewable (such as metals , for example), but also a good knowledge of the rate of renewal of animal species, plants, quality air, water, and more generally, all the resources we use or on which we act. The aim of this approach is to have a footprint small enough not to decrease the natural capital . Sustainable development has been translated into programs for the preservation of the environment by most governments and international bodies, in effect, there is now a global consensus around the need to worry about the sustainability of development .

But sustainable development is also the subject of much criticism. Luc Ferry , for example, wondered who would advocate a "unsustainable development"! Obviously nobody! . Sustainable development can also sometimes be misused for political purposes or to justify protectionist ideas, for example, or for commercial purposes, such as selling by large corporations. Finally, sustainable development puts economic growth at the heart of the strategy for environmental protection, giving a big part in the innovation and technical solutions while some critics believe is the growth economics itself is the cause of environmental degradation: the theory of decay.

Decreasing

The decrease is a theoretical model that promotes the decay of the economy in order to reduce human impacts on the environment.

This current of thought has arisen with the reflections of the Club of Rome , who published a report in 1972 under the name of The Limits to Growth , translated into French by Limits to Growth? and also known as the Report Meadows. This report on the observation that the human population keeps growing and consumption of material goods, raw materials, energy, and pollution generated. It calls to be restricted to a zero growth , to avoid depleting natural resources .

Beginning at the same point, supporters of decay, also called growth objectors, focus their criticisms on the choice of GDP as a benchmark indicator, holding that it was too restrictive . Indeed, this indicator does not take into account the state of the environment and its resources, nor the well-being. For them, the best solution would be to enter into economic decay in a sustainable manner and abandon what is not necessary to simply meet its primary natural without going into a consumer society too.

Supporters of the decreases are opposed to sustainable development, which attaches importance to the growth and technical development .

Evolution of energy intensity of major economies since 1980.

This theory is widely criticized, including the fact that it does not take into account the fact that advances in science and technology could help reduce pollution, replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy, and it is possible to maintain a economic growth without increasing energy consumption and raw materials. To support this argument, they rely for example on the evolution of the energy intensity of the major global economies has declined significantly over the past 20 years . This theory has been particularly critical of several Nobel Prize in economics , like Amartya Sen or Robert Solow , which specify that progress will replace the missing materials, particularly through recycling. They point to the Meadows report that predicted the end of oil for the beginning of XXI ^century. Finally, another argument often repeated is that stopping economic growth would be detrimental to the poorest countries, whose survival is highly dependent on growth, as evidenced by the economic crisis of 2008-2009 ^, .

Environmental Policy

Environment Policy

The headquarters of the Environmental Protection Agency in Washington with U.S.

Historically, this is really only with the appearance of the environment departments in developed countries that the environment has occupied a place in the political debate. It's in the late 1970s that the first environmental ministries were created, with the creation of 2 December 1970 the Environmental Protection Agency by the Government Nixon in the United States , followed in January 1971 by France and in May of that year by Australia . Gradually, all the developed countries will have such a department, with more or less important, and often result in significant deterioration of the environment, as in Germany following the Chernobyl disaster .

Since then, the field of environmental protection has become important in political debate, with the creation of green parties. The electoral performance of parties in developed countries have improved overall from the 1980s to today.

Today, some elections Recent demonstrate the importance of environmental issues in political debates. In France in 2007 , the Environmental Pact of Nicolas Hulot , demanding a strong commitment to environmental , has been ratified by all candidates for the presidential election . At the 2008 U.S. presidential election , environmental issues have an important place in debates, ardently defended by Barack Obama . Finally, the 2009 European elections , the very good score Greens in the countries of the European Union confirms this trend: the environment has truly become a very political issue.

International Equity

Illustrating the global nature of the phenomenon and its increasing role in politics and geopolitics , international actions in connection with the environment have multiplied: international summits, agreements and protocols, global days, changes in regulations, etc..

Summits and international agreements

The first international meeting about the environment was the International Conference on the use and conservation of the biosphere, which met in 1968 in Paris . It enabled the various actors to begin discussions for the first Earth Summit, held in Stockholm in 1972.

These peaks of the Earth are the major international summits on the environment, and are held every 10 years. The United Nations Conference on Environment in Stockholm in June 1972 , the first major international summit dedicated to the state of the environment , truly marks the realization of a global environmental problem and need for concerted action to preserve. It leads to a declaration of principles and a concrete plan of action .

March 3, 1973 , the Washington Convention is adopted by many countries. It aims to ensure that no trade would endanger the survival of a species in its natural environment . His most famous battle is perhaps the one against the trafficking of ivory , which endangers elephants in Africa. The same year adopted the Convention MARPOL , which regulates the practices to reduce marine pollution.

The Earth Summit in Nairobi , held in 1982 , was a failure, because of the low interest of Ronald Reagan , then president of the United States , the low impact of this summit, and the absence of important decisions. This summit is not regarded as a pinnacle of the Earth.

The hole in the ozone layer over the Antarctic in October 1987, subject to the Montreal Protocol the same year.

In 1984 , the UNEP is organizing the World Conference of the industry on environmental management at Versailles , then the year after the International Conference on evaluating the role of carbon dioxide and other gases greenhouse at Villach , whereas the first questions on global warming are beginning to emerge.

On 16 September 1987 was signed the Montreal Protocol , which aims to halt the damage caused to the ozone layer , including prohibiting the use of chlorofluorocarbons and other gases harmful to the ozone layer . In 1989, the Basel Convention regulates trade waste , including possibly banning the export of waste from developed to developing countries to escape local regulations .

In June 1992 , at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , the environment has been defined as a " common good "or" public good ". The international players have shown to have realized that environmental issues could not be decoupled from economic problems, environmental and social, so that the environment was considered a denominator of the three pillars of sustainable development. It has been integrated into the objectives of Agenda 21 for local authorities .

Signatory Countries of the Kyoto Protocol in 2009.

On 11 December 1997 was signed the Kyoto Protocol. This text is of fundamental importance as countries that have signed the pledge to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , with targets, and this, to try to limit global warming . The implementation of the Protocol and its follow-up will result in an international conference almost every year . This protocol is entered into force in 2005 , since it had to be ratified by countries whose emissions in greenhouse gas emissions account for at least 55% of global emissions .

Opening session of the Copenhagen (COP 15) December 7, 2009.

In 2002 , during the Earth Summit in Johannesburg , led, among other major environmental NGOs, environment and sustainable development have affected the business. There has emerged the concept of corporate social responsibility , applying the principles of sustainable development to businesses, the environment being a witness to the operational effectiveness of the three pillars (economic, ecological and social) of sustainable development .

Environmental concerns also affect other areas, and appear in many other conferences and summits ( G8 , G20 , World conferences on housing, cities, etc.). The Security Council UN met in April 2007 to act against climate change and environmental degradation, demonstrating the importance of the issue .

The last major world summit was the Copenhagen summit in December 2009, whose results are mixed which has begun planning for a post-Kyoto, and tried to breathe new life into deciding quantified commitments reducing emissions of greenhouse gases .

International Days

Cyclists in Brussels on the occasion of the Car Free Day in 2005.

The world and international days are often formalized by the United Nations. A growing number of international days are devoted to environmental themes, illustrating the increasing importance of environmental issues in society. There are, among others:

• 20 or March 21, the day of the equinox : Earth Day ;
• 22 March : World Water Day ;
• May 22 : International Day of Biodiversity ;
• 5 June : World Environment Day ;
• June 8 : World Oceans Day ;
• 17 June : World Day of Fight against Desertification and Drought;
• September 16 : International Day for the Protection of the Ozone Layer ;
• September 22 : Car Free Day ;
• 4 October : International Day of animals .

Regulatory

The Environmental Law is a relatively new discipline which aims to study or development of legal rules concerning the use, protection, management or restoration of the environment . It is a right technical and complex, growing, and whose fields tend to densify as and measuring social progress, scientific and technical. There is a growing number of countries identified by an environmental code , but without special court to date (there is no judge of the environment, as there may be a judge for children, a specialty of criminal or anti-terrorist). In some countries however, there are services police , customs or Coast Guard with a specialty environment.

Reference texts are usually national, except in the case of conventions, agreements, and international management systems, such as the environmental management standard ISO 14001. Most countries are now seeking to harmonize their regulations to adopt a more appropriate response to global problems .

Although not regulated as long, many NGOs are calling for an environmental ethic that is recognized by the majority. Similarly, some organizations require that either developed the concept of environmental crime , a concept defined differently worldwide .

Environmental groups

There are many associations and NGOs active in environmental issues. Among the most prominent international level are:

• Friends of the Earth International ;
• Friends of Nature ;
• Greenpeace ;
• Climate Action Network ;
• Sustainable Building Alliance or Alliance SB ;
• International Union for Conservation of Nature ;
• World Wildlife Fund .

In France , associations may be "authorized under the Environment" by the Ministry of Ecology and Sustainable Development. These are associations governed by the 1901 law that help to reveal problems or to find and test solutions in the fields of conservation and the environment and improving the living environment (s vigilance 'exercises over the entire territory). There are also associations on environmental education and sustainable development (EESD).

Environmental Economics

Economic theory

The environmental economics is a subdiscipline of economics that focuses on relationships between environment and economy, that is to say the costs of environmental damage, protection and knowledge of the environment, and the effectiveness and design of economic instruments to change attitudes to the environment . The problem often is the value to assign to an environmental good, a resource or quality . For example, it is very difficult to assign an amount to a good air quality or quantify the impacts of pollution on the water. Economic tools to influence behavior are numerous, ranging from the law of supply and demand (which makes it less accessible a scarce resource by increasing its price), fines, including the calculation of the amount can be difficult , licensing, standards , leaves , etc..

During emission permits CO ₂ in Europe. The Carbon Exchange is a transcription of some economic environmental problems.

This requires taking into account issues related to externalities associated with an activity, which induce environmental costs are not taken into account by the responsible , for example, a farmer does not pay the costs of any pollution water by pesticides , or a carrier will not pay for the gas released into the atmosphere . That consideration of these problems that gave rise to the principle of polluter pays , but also the rights to pollute , whose best-known example is perhaps the carbon market , under the Kyoto Protocol

The environmental economics also deals with contracts related to environmental matters, and whose growth is strong . These contracts meet the needs of non-pollution of energy efficiency , treatment of air, water, cleanliness or pollution. This growth led to increased demand for trained personnel in environmental professions.

Professions and training

The environmental businesses have strongly developed in the context of sustainable development , making the environment an economic sector in full development . The Grenelle of Environment in France, and objectives of green growth and reduction of CO2 _emissions in industrialized countries have given new impetus to the development of environmental businesses. They can be separated into 5 main areas :

• Protection and management of natural spaces and species, representing only a small percentage of jobs in the sector. Provided by the state and specialist organizations, these missions are primarily found in the area of forests , natural resources and parks. ;
• Prevention and treatment of pollution and nuisance in the areas of water (including the ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis ), noise (anti-noise walls), industrial or household waste, but also scientific and technical aspects of new ways to reduce pollution;
• land use, mainly in the urbanization , the landscape and infrastructure construction;
• taking into account the environmental impacts of projects, plans or programs through the preparation of impact studies or environmental assessments. These documents are supported in general by consulting firms that bring different skills which cover the fields of the environment: biodiversity, pollution, pollution ,...)
• consideration of environmental issues in companies is generally left to the poles or QHSE (Quality Health Safety Environment). This involves taking into account the regulations on the environment and reduce the impacts in terms of pollution during the regular business of a company or accidental. Most large companies today have an environmental commitment ;
• society's management of the environment, which includes the trades of environmental education , policy, trades environmental law , but also the lobbying , the board and the audit.

The strong growth of these professions requires appropriate training, are also rising sharply. In developed countries, it is now possible to find many specialized training or having a relationship with the environment although the concept of environment at the time was not the same as today. Some religions animist and Celtic were the elements of nature, such as sources , certain animals or plants, deities. Indeed, non-understanding of nature gave it a mystique that often led to a deification of its elements.

In the Hinduism , the environment is of great importance. Is translated by Hinduism Sanatana Dharma, which, roughly translated, means' the eternal essence of the cosmos "- the quality that links all human beings, animals and plants around the world and eventually to God, source of all existence .

The Shinto religion also deified many natural elements, known as kami. A kami can be any entity superior to man by nature.

The natural world plays an important role in Judaism. In Jewish law ( halakhah ), there are warnings for the protection of fruit trees, or anything that falls within the common good , including the elements constituting the environment.

The Churches Christian progressively take into account the protection of the environment in their positions since the 1970s .

Similarly, most Islamic religious leaders have positioned themselves for a greater respect for the environment .

Notes and references

Notes

References

Unless otherwise indicated, the sources presented here are exclusively in French ((en)).

Schedules

Bibliography

• Andre Beauchamp, Environment and Church, Fides, Montreal, 2008 ( ISBN 9782762129267 )
• Conference of Bishops of France, The Creation of the environment at risk, Bayard-Centurion, Fleurus-Mame, Paris, January 2009, 64 p. ( ISBN 978-2-204-08849-7 )
• Ministry of ecology and sustainable development, environmental responses. Business and the Environment: Report to the Audit Board and Environmental Economics, French documentation, Paris, 2004 ( ISBN 2-11-005695-9 )
• Jean-Claude Fritz, Charalambos Apostolidis et Grard Fritz (ed.), The human race is faced with globalization. Right of peoples and environment, L'Harmattan, Paris, 1997, 230 p. ( ISBN 2-7384-5517-4 )
• Jean-Paul Besset , Ren Dumont, life captured by ecology, Stock, coll. "In the bright, Paris, 1992, 375 p. ( ISBN 2-234-02467-6 )
• Valrie Gunon, "The European aeronautics research and the challenge of the environment" in Letter FAC , ^No. 1, January 2006 ( ISSN 1767-0675 ) [ Full text ]

Related Articles

• Biosphere
• Ecology
• Nature

External Links

• Environment Portal of the European Commission
• Selected websites on the ecology, biodiversity and environment in the encyclopedic repertoire: The Bookmarks Bibliothque nationale de France

• Portal environment and sustainable development
• Portal Earth Science and the Universe

Version of March 4, 2010 This article has been recognized as "quality item, that is to say that it meets quality standards for style, clarity, relevance, citation of sources and illustration.

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