Cultural
In philosophy , the word culture refers to what is different in nature , that is to say what is on the order of the acquired, not innate. Culture has long been considered a hallmark of humanity , which distinguished it from animals. But recent work in ethology and primatology have shown the existence of animal cultures.
In sociology , culture is defined as "what is common to a group of individuals and as what the" soda. "Thus, for an international institution like UNESCO : "In its broadest sense, culture can now be regarded as the set of distinctive spiritual and material , intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and letters , the lifestyles , the fundamental rights of ' human being , the systems of values , the traditions and beliefs. " Definitions Culture is, according to sociologist Quebec Guy Rocher , "a related set of ways of thinking, feeling and acting more or less formalized, which is learned and shared by a plurality of persons, are one way to both objective and symbolic, these people constitute a separate and distinct community. " (Guy Rocher, 1969, 88). All productions tangible or intangible acquired in society. The etymology of the word culture, from the word Latin ("live", "grow" or "honor") suggests that culture refers generally to human activity. This word has significantly different meanings, even contradictory, depending on its uses . The term (Latin cultura) suggests the action to grow in the field of agriculture including: growing flowers ... The term culture is also used in ethology. Cicero was the first to apply the word to cultura humans: A field is so fertile it can be productive without culture, and the same thing for humans without teaching. (Tusculans, II, 13). In history, the word has gradually extended to humans. The term cult , of etymology neighbor (Latin cultus), is used to denote the tribute to a deity. Different definitions of culture reflect different theories for understanding or evaluating human activity. In 1952 , Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn wrote a list of more than 150 different definitions of the word culture in their book . The definition may make the government when setting its mission to the Ministry of Culture is different from the one we give in the humanities or the one that corresponds to the general culture of all of us. There are powerful political and economic framework to define and culture. When entrepreneurs are trying to validate the concept of "corporate culture" or that the engineers of "technical culture", they help to broaden the range of meanings, but at the cost of diluting some specific characteristics, such as opposition between more traditional styles more spontaneous, artistic, religious based, as Hegel said, the "feeling" and more types of actions based on the calculation, cognition, the rule. Although frequently the two worlds intersect, should we, however, confuse, while contributing to favor a totalizing conception of culture? The word culture is sometimes used in a restricted sense to designate the industry "cultural property", that is to say, business and production activities, distribution and rights management and exploitation of entertainment content Audio-visual reproducible. This sector, reflecting the development of information technology and communications, is changing and its future is the subject of tense political controversy. According to Geert Hofstede: culture is a collective mental programming specific to a group of individuals. More specifically, in ethology , the animal culture is any behavior , habit , namely , system of meaning (in anthropology ) taught by a biological individual, socially transmitted by inheritance and not genetics of the species to which that individual belongs. Culture is defined as meaning a set of knowledge transmitted by systems of belief , by the reasoning or experimentation , which develop within the human behavior in relation to the nature and the world environment. It thus includes everything that is regarded as an acquisition of the species, regardless of his heritage instinctive , regarded as natural and innate. This word receives different definitions depending on the context in which it refers. But culture is not reducible to its scientific meaning, because, as stated in the UNESCO definition, it relates the values through which we choose as our relationship to science. In this sense it is more of a political community of human beings than "species" as object of science. In French language , the word culture means first of all knowledge of an general. This is the only definition given in 1862 the Dictionary of National Bescherelle. Scientific knowledge are presented as a foreground element. That is what we call today "general culture". After the mid- twentieth century , the term takes on a second meaning. For example, the Petit Larousse 1980 provides, in addition to individual design, a design collective: a set of social, religious, etc.., demonstrations intellectual, artistic, etc.. that characterize a society. The term can then take one or the other way, but the proximity of areas of use of each as a source of ambiguity. It is in German, the definition of the individual culture or general culture is the word , and there is another word , which is a heritage social , artistic , ethical belonging to a group of individuals with an identity. Thus, the term homophone, which is rather in French to one of the meanings of civilization , and the exchange of ideas between France and Germany , has gradually amalgamated with the original meaning of the word culture French. This second definition is supplanting the old, corresponding to the individual culture. However, current dictionaries cite two definitions, most often by placing the individual culture first. So there are currently French two different meanings for the word culture: These two meanings differ primarily by their dynamic component: It is from this dichotomy that these two meanings may oppose: The collective culture has a component of rigidity may oppose the development of individual cultures, or may lead to counter-culture , a concept that is unimaginable with the individual sense, the knowledge that can only be positive. The science , still evolving, is thus not hook to the concept of individual culture, in popular acceptance, then it is a key component in the initial content of the term. But it is through art and history that the two concepts overlap. Individual culture includes knowledge of the arts and cultures, the different human cultures , but obviously that is affiliated to the culture (collective) to which the individual is similar. That is the point of confusion between two senses: culture (individual) is understood as knowledge of the culture (collective) which we depend. Thus merging two different meanings, the term culture tends currently in France to a compromise in its ordinary meaning, where it means essentially knowledge related to art and the history more or less related to identity ethnicity. Both directions, however, must be analyzed separately: the collective culture and individual culture intersect in reality, not only by their disambiguation , but also by the descent of the species and individual to a cultural entity. The popular use of the word culture in many Western societies, enables a classification of his character based on belief, consumption of goods or the exercise of activities regarded as elitist: the kitchen , the art , and music for example. A performance culture is to regard it as consisting of four elements that are "passed down from generation to generation by learning" : Julian Huxley gives a slightly different division, in mentifacts, socifacts and artifacts, subsystems for ideological, sociological, and technology respectively. Socialization, in Huxley's view, depends on the subsystem belief. The sociological subsystem directs the interaction between people. Material objects and their use form the technological subsystem . In general, archaeologists focus on material culture, while the cultural anthropologists focus on symbolic culture, although ultimately both groups are interested in the relationship between these two dimensions. Moreover, anthropologists conceive the word "culture" to refer not only consumer goods, but the general process that produces such goods and give them a meaning, and relationships and social practices in which such objects and processes are intertwined. The value systems include ideas and materials which is important in life. They guide the beliefs that make up part of the culture It is possible to recognize the value systems preferably associated with civilizations. Thus, in what is still called the West, it seems that the cultural conversation is very concerned about the issue of the rule, the extent of physical law or social origin, while in the Far East, most important case concerning the identity in the world. The values of village societies (such as Africa or Latin America) focus more on the balance between man and nature, guaranteed by the intercession of medicine men. The values of the nomadic societies are more concerned to resolve the inevitable antagonism between groups on the common area. Within the Western sphere, the point of view the Anglo-Saxon insists further on the law (common law culture, and the rule of law). This corresponds to a religion inspired by Protestantism concerned with the rational use of personal time (as evidenced by Max Weber), allowing self-discipline, releases a liberal economy and is monitored by the collective authority. In France, the most "secular" Western countries - a tradition that could be traced back to Gallicanism of Philip the Fair , the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges , or positions of Bossuet - we rather deal with a national recovery administration the former Catholic authority, which is maintained a principle of divine and royal arbitration, now deposited in the secular state. The French Revolution introduced a status equivalent civilian for all citizens , regardless of beliefs or religious affiliations, but does not deny long-with Napoleon - the principle of transcendent power and paternalistic. It survives today in the cultural fabric of this country that remains from that point of view of Catholic tradition. However, as elsewhere in Europe, we encounter the debate between the two religions and cultures of the "Book" (Bible), which form the other two variants of Western culture at large: the Jewish tradition, which emphasizes the covenant between God and his people, through an interpretative law, and Islamic tradition, which wants to restore the principle of absolute freedom of God. We see here how the world values do not grow randomly, but as logical system of assumed differences. We also observe that the nature of conversation between the values is most often unconscious, hidden by the intransigence of their respective supporters. The standards consist of expectations about how people should behave in various situations. Each culture has methods, called sanctions , to impose its standards. Sanctions vary with the size of the standard norms that society imposes formally have the status of laws. Note that in France, the French language has official status, and as such, it is the language of administration and law civil. For the U.S. , there is a very important normative tradition in industrial and financial. Accounting standards in Europe are currently quite widely inspired by American standards. The institutions are the structures of society and which values and norms are transmitted. We saw that in the case of France , defending the language was taken very early in the care of the sovereign , Francis I for the status of official language of French by the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterets ( 1539 ) , Richelieu to the French Academy. From there was born in France and in much of Europe , a tradition that links culture with institutions public. For the U.S. , there is no way as important to the public on the culture itself. Thus, many large companies have collections of works of art as they are opening museums private. Businessmen and billionaires do not hesitate to make their sponsorship and supply major philanthropic foundations (which are also often the name) and have developed actions in the area of culture, arts and art education (major museums like the Metropolitan or the Guggenheim in New York, Foundations like Ford, Carnegie, etc..)). Cultural industries, implementing the foundation for a true cultural management , were developed from the outset on a model with private companies over the decades a strong movement of financial concentration making major American industry key players an oligopoly of global industries of entertainment and media (Time Warner, Disney, Fox, ...). Thus, since the 1950s, U.S. industry of film , centered in Hollywood , dominates not only economically but also symbolically, the distribution of blockbuster movies and the consecration of the big stars. In France , the majority of cultural institutions are organizations in public management or organization of such associations, but with a heavy dependence of public institutions: academies , museums , libraries , media libraries , conservatories rooms, concert and theater , orchestras , operas , Houses of youth and culture. The France was one of the first modern democracies to establish a Ministry of Culture in 1959 . It was followed by many other countries in Europe, but according to formulas adapted to their respective contexts. "Small country" (small in size) as the Netherlands, Finland, Austria and Portugal have in their respective governmental department a broader (eg education) which is attached a Secretary of State for Culture. The federal countries have equivalents in their regions (actually Federated States) exercising cultural competence. Thus, in Germany, each Land is found in the government leadership of Culture and the Arts, usually attached to the Education, Research and Training (which can be explained by the importance of institutions arts education). Spain has in turn has a Ministry of Culture in 1978, when the page was shot Franco. The United Kingdom is an example of the most interesting in the consideration of state action in favor of culture. Since it was first for the government to intervene and support the arts institutions and especially the performing arts (drama, dance, music) like the Royal Shakespeare Company, Royal Opera House Covent Garden, large London orchestras, etc.. We get a fairly similar pattern in countries Europe. In the case of classical music for example, onobserve all musical institutions (with some notable exceptions) are supported by public authorities (state, regions, cities). The UK , however, differs from the rest of Europe because the music institutions are more autonomous, more rarely in public institutions. In contrast, in the field of museums , a large proportion of the institutions are public. From this point of view, the United Kingdom differs from the United States , the traditional culture of both countries is quite distinct. Whether in France or Europe, some places may be considered private institutions: the castles as private Chenonceau , abbeys as Fontfroide in Narbonne, the Alsace museum or large entertainment events such as long-standing The Puy du Fou ) of aA from local initiative, even if the radiation is national. Over the past thirty years the local authorities (municipalities, departments and regions) have developed their own cultural policy and play a key role in facilitating and regulating the local cultural life. These policies, often conducted in partnership with State agencies, involved several reasons: access to culture as many, support the creation and artists contribute to economic development and enhance the image of local Local. Since the Maastricht Treaty aspects of culture are now part of the responsibilities of the European Union , under the principles of subsidiarity. In particular, the EU must ensure the implementation of European language policy , which poses some difficulties in implementation. There are therefore two quite distinct models: the American model, characterized by a strong alliance between public and private (where the private sector plays a leading role in purely cultural), and the model European , mainly public. The artifacts - things or aspects of material culture - describe the values and norms of a culture. Culture is also inseparable from the heritage arts in the sense that it is an attachment to traditional values. This aspect of culture is much stronger in Europe and Asia, especially in America and the United States, for obvious historical reasons. Nevertheless, the United States admire the European cultural heritage, because it is their cultural roots: it is found in acquisitions of works of art in their artistic presence in places ( Paris , Bruges , Venice , Egypt ... ) in sponsorships for the U.S. restaurant a few symbolic elements of European heritage ( Chateau de Versailles ...) in trade music ( conductors ...) etc.. Compliance with the Americans for the history of monarchy in France seems surprising at first, but it shows that attachment to a heritage history they have not, and recognition of the role played by France in history and the defense of freedom in the United States. When we speak of heritage , we think most often built heritage and the architecture , but also the sculpture , the painting , the stained glass , the music , the literature , the folklore , the language. For several years, UNESCO has developed a program in the direction of intangible heritage (2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage with 3 key actions: 1) the list of Intangible Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding, 2) Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (Processional Giants and Dragons in Belgium and France or Italy, Canto a tenore is a pastoral song Sardinian), 3) the Register of Good Practices backup. Asia and North Africa, there is an extraordinarily rich heritage, civilizations in Chinese, Indian, Arabic and Berber, for example. Heritage of Black Africa is rediscovered ( primitive art ). See also: Language and Culture Class The language is probably, in human societies, which is most capable of conveying a culture, both oral and written. Thus the French culture has developed in Europe of the Enlightenment , in fact, mainly because it was spoken in several princely courts. This rule of French was due to the cultural influence of France in the eighteenth century , and the admiration of foreign sovereigns (in Prussia, Russia ...) were, wrongly or rightly, the French sovereigns. This rule had actually been prepared by the Edict of Villers-Cotterets , signed by Francis I in 1539 , which established French as official language, that is to say as the language of administration and law (written ). Then, in the seventeenth century , great writers gave the classic French acclaim. France is probably Culture and art Science and technology are interacting permanent, since the techniques are the applications of science in society. Speaking events culture techniques is therefore to address its relationship with science. There is, for over three centuries, a misunderstanding between science (specifically the "exact" sciences) and culture, or even conflict. Jacques Ellul has developed the thesis that the technique itself increases, imposing its values of efficiency and technical progress, denying the rights, needs, and especially its culture. Claude Allegre notes in a little science for everyone: The philosopher Hans Jonas shows effect in the Responsibility Principle ( 1979 ), that man tends to adopt vis--vis science and especially its applications technology , behavior Promethean. He advocates the precautionary principle and is the origin of the philosophical principles of sustainable development. The astrophysicist Jean Audouze , former director of the Astrophysics Institute of Paris, draws the same conclusion, and calls for a reconciliation between science and culture. We distinguish throughout the world, cultures written and oral cultures. Language, written or oral, plays an essential role in the development of a form of social knowledge, which is thought of common sense, socially developed and shared by members of the same social or cultural group. Sometimes called common knowledge that a social representation. In the field of archeology and of anthropology , culture is defined as the body of knowledge and behaviors that characterize a society man, or more generally a group of people within a society. Only a few crops have reached the state of civilization in the history of mankind. Although there is a dominant culture in a company, usually formed around the culture of the elite , it is always formed social groups whose interests, practices, individuals are compared to the dominant culture. Thus we find various forms of culture such as popular culture , the mass culture , the youth culture , or what is called the subculture (or intimate culture ). In the definition given by the UNESCO 's intangible cultural heritage , the cultural diversity appears to be a decisive factor: The children's culture differs from that of adults, because the systems of representation of a child and an adult are necessarily different. A dialogue of people from different cultures may require intercultural mediation. Some people specialize in cultural mediation. Many people today often identify culture or " civilization "evolved to a state of mankind, who oppose their view, in the wild, the" nature "is a wild according to them. Many projects of the eighteenth century to the early twentieth century , which took place during the industrial revolution , in the sense s'orientrent precedent. That was not the case of many philosophers of the Enlightenment , as John Locke , who founded the political philosophy on natural law (law of nature), Robert Boyle , author of books on the experimental method (see philosophy nature ), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (musings of a Solitary Walker), Samuel von Pufendorf (which inspired the constitution of the United States ), or multiple streams of paint in the nineteenth century ( Barbizon School , Impressionism ...). In recent decades, many philosophers have expressed concern about relations with nature ( Rene Dubos , Hans Jonas ...). According to modern philosophy, especially in the wake of Claude Levi-Strauss , we consider that culture is natural to man, as all men have one and that any "state of nature" (state pre-cultural) would be pure fiction. For this topic, see the article Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Recent findings tend to show that the nature, biological influences culture. For their research, Robert Stoller and colleagues showed that in case of error in the determination of sex at birth resulting from a biological abnormality not apparent, the forces of nature act "on attitudes and behaviors of a child through his games, his clothing, his choice of 'Book of play, etc.. in other words, that can influence the innate acquired. " See also: State of Nature , Philosophy of nature , sustainable development Although fitness was originally confined to gyms, the development of modern sports tends to be closer to nature : mountain climbing , skiing (including skiing ), cycling , kayaking , canyoning ... Without doubt the globalization involves considerable cultural issues. After the end of the Cold War , we have seen that sometimes is called a clash of civilizations. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall ( 1989 ), one tends to see a dominant model, the Anglo-Saxon deemed " liberal ", but where in fact there is a very strong commitment to public power in the U.S. 'arms industry and the IT industry. The American influence is particularly strong on cultural aspects, and plays on the interactions multiple ( companies , partnerships with NGOs ) from the basic components of culture (values, norms, institutions , artifacts). The socio-cultural influence is exercised through social learning, and its components such as education, language, and film . This Anglo-Saxon press English as lingua franca , tends to impose certain modes of operation within institutions worldwide , including commercial, which according to some observers, may reflect a form of cultural imperialism and linguistic. The development of mass culture since the 1930s in the wake of Americanization has promoted sustainable consumption and production that are not necessarily compatible with today's stresses societal contemporary. Faced with this form of domination, some countries are responding by promoting cultural diversity , and organize accordingly. In France , the term "cultural exception tends to be a pejorative sense, since the solutions adopted to defend cultural diversity go through forms of action centered around the State (public aid and subsidies to various forms of media ...) which are not necessarily in the quality of cultural creation. Spontaneously, the cultural expression is reminiscent of a tangible heritage (sites, historic monuments , works of art , ...). The UNESCO was established in 1972 a list of World Heritage , composed of hundreds of sites around the world. This concept of heritage has evolved over the past fifteen years. He was first added a list of the World ( 1992 ), which identifies the document collections of universal interest (declaration of human rights and citizen introduction of metric system , memory of the Suez Canal .. .). In 1997 , the concept of oral and intangible heritage of humanity has been defined by UNESCO. So we are moving gradually towards a design heritage that includes both a tangible but also intangible cultural heritage (ICH). This change of design heritage is not without consequence for the social representations and social psychology community, as living traditions ( carnival of Binche example) and documentaries are recognized in the same way as monuments and works of art of the past. If similar effects occur on a set of individuals belonging to the same community , we speak rather of cultural bias. The aim of companies is not usually produce the crop. Nevertheless, even in areas other than cultivation, first, there are more and more links with cultural activities, and secondly the concept of corporate culture develops with the appearance of charters defining the shared values of people working in the same company. Historically, this was the creation of works councils , which first allowed the employees to enjoy cultural activities close to their workplace (loan books of records ...). More recently, the activities of patronage have increased, to enhance the image of businesses : eg sports ( sailing , tennis , football , cycling ...) to give a picture of team spirit. The sponsorship aims to open today in activities more artistic. We can see such companies private participation in the organization of exhibitions. Thus a company's oil sector may find interest in participating in exhibitions in connection with the Arab-Muslim culture , for example. As part of strategies for sustainable development and corporate responsibility , there is now a proliferation of messages from companies around corporate charters, and sponsorships cultural or social. These aspects are intended to enhance the image of the company. This type of activity is very natural to the United States , where relations between businesses and NGOs established easily. This mode of decentralized and private sector is not yet fully passed through customs in many countries in Europe , especially France , where the public, we have seen, plays traditionally an important role. Cultural NGOs can nevertheless promote the education in developing countries (in Africa for example), and strengthen ties. However, if the company sees the sponsorship as the communication in its purest annual activity reports (see corporate social responsibility ), it can hide in some of the shortcomings in the strategies. The corporate culture , driven by policy makers , and explained to employees and stakeholders of the company , should participate as well, in general, to build a strategic culture of enterprise. Cultures on the one human species, and that we can identify in living in close relationship they have with the symbolic language and to specific forms of organization, techniques and associated technologies are changing constantly since their emergence, there are hundreds of thousands of years. They are an extension of the cultures of primates who were our ancestors, who plausibly resemble in part those who are still those of "our cousins the great apes. However, between the use of voice (in the aria of gibbons) or the use of simple instrumentation, and even day of very complex social relationships (in chimpanzees ), and deriving an interposed grid signifying common among individuals of the same company and the world, there is a break. It is hard to deny, whatever the effort-worthy and useful - to abolish the concept of "own man", yet to explain, particularly as it resulted in a rather extraordinary divergence between the destiny of our species and those of other providers. It starts two conflicting lines of analysis on this problem: one highlights the legitimate ownership of humanity to nature, and defy religious prejudice (preferring to locate the origin of man in a decision divine), or widely shared reluctance to accept that we are as a species. The second, basing the humanities and social sciences, attempts to resist a "naturalism" reducer in defending their own domain, irreducible to other levels of reality: the field of anthropology that is precisely its territory in the study what man does not share with other animals. It should probably exceed the dogmatic forms of this inevitable antagonism to define more precisely the relationship between "natural continuity" between the cultures of primate and human cultures, and the appearance of a specific discrepancy. To do this, one can resort to a certain point the analogy between the "long process" (Life) and "very short" (human culture): biologists (as Jean Claude Ameisen) studied history of bacteria, to understand the incredible complexity of life and mechanisms for cell death in multicellular organisms. They claim the need to reconstruct the "missing times" to interpret the present situation, and understand key phenomena cancer. Other biologists are more interested in the history of the species themselves: in all cases, the analogy with human history proves heuristic, even to pay the price of anthropomorphism by providing the genes or cells intentional human traits as "interest" or "strategies". In contrast, social scientists use little recourse to biological knowledge. They probably partially wrong, but their arguments have nothing to do with a variant of " creationism ": they are merely trying to develop analytical tools that are not first imported from other disciplines, while in their own domain (including the period of less than 30,000 years for which they have indisputable evidence of symbolic culture: funeral rites, representations, systems of signs), diversity and confluence, in short the movement of crops seems primarily to obey special laws. Just as there is a changing biological , some ethologists , and many geneticists , believe that there is a cultural change, and that this evolution is by mutation and is transmitted by " genes "of culture, called memes , which is pressure social and environmental , leading to their disappearance or instead to expansion (propagation). The specificity of sustainable human cultures is that they function as "political conversations" between different positions of the proposal process, objections, constantly reorganizing social groups. The disappearance of a culture is not necessarily the "death" of an organism, but the transition to another configuration conversational; abandonment of metaphors for other collective. The analogy with the evolution of living forms remains interesting and useful because, like human language cultures, biological species are the products of history: they "die" like no bodies, but are transformed. As shown by the anthropologist British Mary Douglas , no human culture is "homogeneous" it is always the result of an internal differentiation between supporters (or followers) of more individualistic values, values over collective , hierarchical organizational solutions and finally forms of passive or active resistance to all the values in effect. Even in societies known - wrongly - "primitive" and believed "without history", there is no cultural stability, consensus, without resistance, without changes in single individual or group. Similarly, there is no cash "uniform" consisting of individuals all the same, any species is indeed characterized by a repertoire of common genes but also genetic diversity among individuals within it. In a given species, the emergence and spread of new alleles resulting from a competition in the gene pool, it also marked by a "resistance" to change quantifiable in terms of drift and genetic drift. The analogy between biological evolution and cultural evolution, however, must be measured: this is not the same space of time, the current evolution of life over hundreds of millions of years, so that human cultures are different cultures other primates in that they will probably develop only in the last few hundred thousand years, dating back some linguists even the emergence of symbolic language to less than 60,000 years. Another substantial difference between development and evolution of the living human culture, is their tendency to organize in some respects a "global culture" unitary: gold if life reproduces and evolves only through a competitive a multitude of species and organisms, it does not know the unique organization. The very idea of a single species or a single body would be absurd. One may also question the sense that the trend may take a company to "global". Other more direct links were proposed between the development of human cultures and biological evolution of mankind under the concept of gene-culture coevolution. According to this theory developed by sociobiologists Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson in the early 1980's , cultural traditions can be broken down into culturgnes that is to say small "units" of culture. Cultural transmission is strongly influenced by the nature of the mind that human is the product of biological evolution. But conversely, a cultural behavior may also promote genetic evolution through the stabilization of certain genes that give an adaptive advantage in the group where this cultural behavior is observed. Since the primates humans have adopted the language symbol to represent their relationship, it has drawn into a fast-moving culture that distinguishes them from other primates (such as for example described the ethologist Frans de Waal , when speaks of "political Chimpanzee"): words set by the system of signifiers are indeed accurate and inclusive enough to prevent controversy. Thus the history of cultures (starting with that of the myths studied by Claude Levi-Strauss ) is it is a kind of "chase" between different ways of "taking life". It is possible that culture worldwide training reduces the wealth of opportunities for thousands of cultures that still exist, but it can ill afford a unique model in the various "fundamental passions" that it is the site of expression not only in the art or religion , but also in practical activity and debate policy. Recognizing the importance of media ( newspapers , radio , telephone , television , ...) in the dissemination of culture, governments have often been tempted to control the dissemination of information by taking control of the media. It took some forms of propaganda , or through the art , or the nationalization of the means of dissemination by the State. At the time of the web , the modern approach to understanding the dissemination of culture through the media but also by language , is probably that of mediology. What characterizes today's broadcast media , specifically the Internet , is that the individual is not only receiving the information (radio, television) or transmitter in a one to one (phone). It may also issue a large number of individuals, through forums, messaging, blogs ... This form of communication is reminiscent of the emergence of printing in the fifteenth century. We know how upset this form of dissemination of European society, and ultimately provide a strong development during the Renaissance , through the great discoveries. In our time, we are experiencing a shift from written culture to a culture of information digitally encoded on media mail : disk , CD-ROM , broadcast internet ... This radical transformation is not without problems Intellectual property for artists. For example, the industry 's record can be severely threatened by the increasing acts of piracy. Another significant aspect of this change is the fact that libraries are now called upon to open up to media digital. Called more and more libraries and media centers , since the support of the media is not only the paper but digital media. The question then digital libraries. The selection criteria works on monitors computer makes it easier to find the book on the shelves, and the information sought. When the library contains games, then it is a toy library. The number of websites in each country, including the number of websites per capita is an indicator of the dissemination of contemporary culture around the language. Regis Debray think the transmission of culture includes a strong element of belief and sacred. According to him, after the first two revolutions, the Codex (the Bible ) and that of the printing , humanity is undergoing a revolution based on information technology and particularly on the web The History shows that the areas of contact between civilizations can be sources of conflict, or otherwise extremely successful in terms of cultural exchange. We can mention for example the maritime trade in ancient Greece between cities and their colonies ( Elea , Phocaea ...), in ancient Rome , Venice , the contact zones in Spain between Muslims and Christians ( the Caliphate of Cordoba ), the Syria after the conflicts of the Crusades, the Silk Road , the Kingdom of Roger II of Sicily (who brought a knowledge map valuable to the West from the Arab-Muslim world know, in Palermo ; the contributions of Al Idrissi are emblematic. ), travel of missionaries and explorers , the trade from Bruges (towns Hanseatic and maritime relations with southern Europe ), the protectorate French in Morocco ... It is through such exchanges that many scientific treatises and philosophical arrived in the West , from ancient Greece , the Asian , the Mesopotamia , the Indian as well as techniques useful: compass , sextant , information mapping , paper , printing , Arabic numerals ... The culture of an individual, also called general culture , is all the knowledge he has on the world. It is partly built by the education and teaching , but in addition includes an element of active construction on the part of the individual. It also includes the dimension of structuring the spirit , vis--vis all knowledge : Culture is what remains when one has forgotten everything (usually attributed to Edouard Herriot ). This structure gives the subject cultivated the ability to relate easily to any field of study to its knowledge. It is the general culture. Thus, culture can include general knowledge as diverse as the history , the music , the arts , the literature , the sciences , the astronomy , the geography , the philosophy , the cinema , the sports ... We see however that this conception of culture, which may seem elitist, in fact corresponds to the definition of individual culture. The cultures of different social groups ( popular culture for example) may contain more diverse forms of knowledge or more specific. Against these forms of culture, culture is the foundation of general culture that should have a minimum individual to fit into society. Crafts , Trade , Policy , Artificial , Religion Etymology
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Culture and Art
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Importance and role of collective culture
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Culture versus nature
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The culture in relation to heritage
The relationship between culture and private companies
Evolution, selection and cultural diffusion
General principles of cultural evolution
Analogies with biological evolution
Gene-culture Coevolution
History and future of human cultures
Culture and transmitting the Web
Culture and areas of contact between civilizations
General knowledge of an individual
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