Claudius (Roman Emperor)
| Claude | |
|---|---|
| Roman Emperor | |
 Bust of Claudius as Jupiter. Marble, Roman artwork, ca 50. | |
| Reign | |
| 24 January 41 - 13 October 54 (~ 14 years) | |
| Period | Julio-Claudian |
| Predecessor (s) | Caligula |
| Successor (s) | Nero |
| Biography | |
| Birth | 1August 10 av. AD - Lugdunum |
| Original Name | Tiberius Claudius Drusus |
| Deaths | 13 October 54 (63) - Rome |
| Burial | Mausoleum of Augustus |
| Father | Nero Claudius Drusus |
| Mother | Antonia Minor |
| Spouse (s) | (1) Plautia Urgulanilla ( 9 - 24 ) (2) Aelia Paetina ( 28 - 31 ) (3) Messalina ( 38 - 48 ) (4) Agrippina the Younger ( 49 - 54 ) |
| Descent | (1) Claudius Drusus (from Plautia ) (2) Claudia Antonia (from Aelia ) (3) Claudia Octavia (from Messal. ) (4) Britannicus (from Messalina ) |
| Adoption (s) | Nero |
| List of Roman Emperors | |
Claude ( 1 August 10 BC. - 13 October 54 ) is the fourth Roman emperor , who reigned from 41-54 AD. AD
Born in Lugdunum ( Lyon ) in Gaul in 10 BC. AD , son of Drusus and Antonia Minor , herself the daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia , he was the first emperor born outside Italy. He succeeded Caligula in 41 , becoming the fourth emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty when he was already fifty years.
It appeared unlikely that Claudius became emperor, he was stammering and his family had felt unable to hold public office until he became consul of his nephew Caligula in 37. His disability, however, saved him perhaps the purges in the noble Roman families that took place during the reigns of his two predecessors, allowing it to be in a position to be appointed emperor after Caligula's assassination: he was the last male relative. He came to power by closing gifts ( donativa ) the praetorian cohorts , thus inaugurating an unfortunate use.
Despite his lack of political experience, Claude proved a capable administrator and a great builder audience.
His reign saw the Empire grow: five provinces were added to the empire, which " Britain "(Britannia in Latin) in 43 - where he went for the triumphs, finding himself well received, and that his son, Britannicus nickname - the Lycia , the Mauretania , the Noricum and Thrace. He took a personal interest in public affairs, focusing on the laws and chairing public trials. He even published twenty edicts a day.
He extended the Roman citizenship to many cities in the provinces , especially in Gaul where he was born. Sensitive to the demands of Gallic notables, he obtained in 48 of the Senate that they can access the public magistrates in Rome and then to the Roman Senate. Grateful, delegates of the Gallic nations did burn his speech on a bronze tablet, the Claudius Tablet , which was placed in the federal sanctuary of the Three Gauls in Lyon. We found two fragments in 1528: they are now preserved Gallo-Roman Fourviere to Lyon.
By 47 , he celebrated the secular games , according to the new date established by Varro to the founding of Rome.
But throughout his reign he was perceived as vulnerable by the Roman nobility. He was thus forced to continuously seek to consolidate power at the expense of individual senators. By 49 , he banished the Jews from Rome to proselytize active.
In his personal life, he experienced many hardships and her last marriage led him to death.
He first married Plautia Urgulanilla , whom he had a son, died in infancy, and a daughter he did expose the suspicion of being the fruit of adultery. He married then lia Ptina he had a daughter, Antonia. He then allied himself Messalina whom he had two children, Octavia (b. 40, the future wife of Nero ) and Britannicus (b. 41), which was overshadowed then poisoned by Nero. In fourth wedding, he married his own niece, Agrippina the Younger.
He was poisoned in 54 at the instigation of Agrippina, after, on his advice, adopted son of the latter - Nero - and passed it, by marrying his daughter Octavia , before his own son for succession.
These events made him despise by the ancient authors. Historians latest tend to temper their views.
Summary |
The historian Suetonius provides abundant information on disability and physical weakness of the emperor
It seemed, however, suffer from any infirmity in his quiet moments, and, according to Suetonius , his waist was slender and well made, the white hair adding to the natural kindness of his face and his whole being seemed full of grandeur and dignitas . Under the effect of anger or anxiety, symptoms became more prominent.
His health was bad until his accession as emperor, then flourishing, with the exception of stomach pains . Claude gave a speech that showed all his physical defects and apparent stupidity as so many tricks to protect themselves from enemies .
The diagnosis about his disability has often been revised over the centuries. Before World War II , the infantile paralysis (or polio ) was often regarded as the cause. Thus the argument used by Robert Graves in his novel Moi, Claude , whose first edition dates back to 1930. However polio does not explain all the symptoms described above, and a more recent theory is rather involved a cerebral palsy , as described by Ernestine Leon .
As for his temperament, he is in fact so many mutually incompatible descriptions it is difficult to imagine. The ancient historians give Claude a portrait of a man open, little versed in things of the spirit, who enjoyed the fat jokes, laughed without restraint, and greeted members of the mob at the table .
It has also been portrayed as a cruel man, bloodthirsty, enjoying the performances of gladiators and executions, carried away quickly (also Claude himself apologized in an edict) . It also said paranoid and apathetic, slow-minded and easily confused, .
According to these historians, he placed undue reliance on his wives and freedmen, Pallas , Narcissus and Callisto , by whom he was sometimes referred to as slave .
Existing works of Claude we present a different face, depicting an intelligent director, and even cultivated scholar, attentive to detail and concern for justice. Claude thus remains an enigma. Since the discovery of his "Letter to the Alexandrians" in the last century, much work has been undertaken to rehabilitate Claudius and try to know the truth.
Family Origins and Early History
Claude was born on the day of building the altar of Augustus. It was the third son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia , the first two surviving children of that marriage being Germanicus and Livilla. Antonia may have had two other children who died very young.
His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor Thurin , sister of Augustus. The paternal side he was Livia , the third wife of Augustus and Tiberius Claudius Nero , father of Tiberius. During his reign, Claude reactivated the rumor that he was the illegitimate son of Augustus. In -9 his father Drusus died suddenly, perhaps from an injury. Claude was raised by his mother who never remarried, but rejected it when his asserted disability. Antonia called him a monster and saw a standard of stupidity. It seems to have ended by entrusting his grandmother Livia . Livia does not show less hard, she often sent letters of criticism short and dry. . He was in the care of an "old leader mules" . Suetonius tells why, as shown by Leon (1948): for him to discipline, the logic that his condition was due to laziness, lack of will. His symptoms, however, seem to have disappeared as a teenager and her family noticed her sudden interest in culture. By 7 , we hired Livy to inculcate history, assisted by Sulpicius with Flavius Claudius spent much time and with the philosopher Athenodorus. According to a letter, Augustus himself was surprised at the clarity with which Claude was speaking . They sat down to wait over their future.
It was in his early works of historian who prevented his ascent. According to Vincent Scramuzza particular, Claude began to work on the Roman civil wars and wrote a history of Augustus is too true to be too critical . In one case as in the other, it was much too early for such a story and it only added to remind Augustus that Claudius was the descendant of its former rival Antony. His mother and grandmother put an end to the experience, reinforced in their conviction that Claudius was not for public career. It could not be sure that he would follow the line of the sovereign. When he returned to the story later in his life, Claude spent entirely on the wars of the second triumvirate, but the damage was done and his family held him back. When the Arc de Triomphe of Pavia was built in honor of the royal family in 8, the name of Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus became after his promotion to the rank of paterfamilias in his adoption by his brother) that was not burned on the edge and after those princes died Gaius and Lucius , and those children of Germanicus. There is controversy over whether the registration was not included in the base and was added decades later by Claudius himself .
On the death of Augustus in 14 , Claude - then aged 23 - appealed to his uncle Tiberius to allow him to begin the curriculum honorum. Tiberius, the new emperor, responded by granting consular Claude ornaments. Claude returned to the charge and was ignored. The new emperor was not more generous than the old, Claude abandoned all hope of high office and returned to privacy scholar.
Whatever might be the disdain of the imperial family, it seems clear that early Claude collecting public esteem. On the death of Augustus, the equites , or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. After the fire in his house, the Senate voted on its reconstruction funds. They also demanded that Claude could participate in debates. Tiberius did not accept either of the two motions, however, the feeling remained. Immediately after the death of Drusus , the son of Tiberius Claudius was promoted as a potential heir by some factions. Again, this suggests that its exclusion from public life was political. In addition, as at that time the power and terror of the Praetorian Sejanus was at its peak, Claude could have decided to keep a low profile about this possibility.
On the death of Tiberius, Caligula , the new emperor, acknowledged some value to Claude. He named co-consul in effect in 37 to rekindle memories of the deceased father of Caligula and brother of Claudius, Germanicus , who was very loved. Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle, however: he rallied, made him pay huge sums of money, humiliated before the Senate, etc.. According to Dio Cassius , and after a portrait kept him at the end of the reign of Caligula, Claudius was greatly emaciated and sick - probably because of its state of tension .
Reign
Accession to the title of Emperor
( Lawrence Alma-Tadema , 1867)
On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated by a conspiracy of large scale (especially involving the Praetorian commander Cassius Shaer and several Senators). There is no indication that Claude played a direct role in the assassination, but it was sometimes argued that he was involved: in fact it was on the scene shortly before the event . However, after the death of the wife and the daughter of Caligula it became apparent that Cassius was looking beyond just a conspiracy against it, eliminating all members of the imperial family. In the confusion that followed the murder, Claudius was a witness to the assassination by germaine custody of several members of noble families not involved in this situation, including some of his friends. Fearing for his life, he left the imperial palace. It has often been reported that a praetorian guard by the name of Gratus allegedly discovered behind a curtain and immediately acknowledged emperor . A portion of the guard would have expected to find Claude, perhaps with his consent. They reassured him and claimed they were not of those who sought revenge against the imperial family. He was quietly escorted to the praetorian camp and put under protective custody.
The Senate met quickly, but the meeting quickly drifted into a quarrel over which of them would be the new Princeps. When they were informed of the claim of the Praetorians for Claudius, they demanded that it be presented to them to receive their approval, but he refused, rightly perceive the risk he would run. Some historians, particularly Josephus , claiming that Claude was then guided in his choice by the king of Judea , Herod Agrippa. However, a first version of the same author minimizes the role of Agrippa in the events - so we do not know how much there was. The Senate was finally forced to surrender in return Claude pardoned the assassins, only Cassius Shaer was executed.
Claude took a number of measures to increase its legitimacy vis--vis potential thieves by insisting on his membership in the Julio-Claudian family. And he adopted the cognomen of "Caesar" - a name which was always a great weight on the populace. To this end he gave the cognomen of Nero, he had adopted as paterfamilias of Claudii Nerone, when his brother Germanicus was adopted by Tiberius and left the family. If he had never been adopted by Augustus or his successors, he was still the grand-son of Octavia and believed he was entitled. It also adopted the name of Augustus as the two previous emperors at the start of their reign. He kept the honorific name of Germanicus to recall the connection with his late brother heroic. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight the fact that she was the wife of the Divine Augustus. Finally, Claude frequently used the term "son of Drusus (filius Druse) in its securities to recall his father's reputation and appropriate copy.
The image of Claudius suffered from commentators such as Seneca of what he was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard rather than the Senate - he was the first. It was no longer considered the first emperor to use corruption to ensure the loyalty of the army. This is only partly true: a will and Augustus Tiberius had both military and guard their heirs, and the death of Caligula might have expected the same thing if a will existed. The guard kept the recognition of Claudius, who dedicated her thanks on coins minted at the beginning of his reign.
The expansion of the Empire
During the reign of Claudius, the empire enjoyed the new expansion, the latter has been greatly reduced since the time of Augustus. The provinces of Thrace , of Mauritania , Noricum , Pamphylia , Lycia , and Judea were annexed during this period. But the most striking of these conquests was that of the British island.
In 43 , Claude sent Aulus Plautius at the head of four legions to Britain ( Britannia ), on the pretext of the call using a local ally in distress. Brittany was a tempting target for Rome because of his wealth, particularly mines and slaves. The place also served as a haven for Gallic rebels and others, the case should be adjusted accordingly. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the first clashes, bringing with him reinforcements, including war elephants. They had to make a strong impression on the Britons during their involvement in the capture of Camulodunon. He returned after a fortnight but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a triumph. Only members of the imperial family were entitled to such honors, but later lifted this restriction Claude to reward his generals conquerors. It also gave him the honorary title of "Britannicus" but he did not accept that her son, never used it himself. At the capture of British General Caratacus at 50, Claude granted him clemency. Caractacos ended his life on land provided by the state, end certainly atypical for an enemy general, but that could have calmed the British resistance.
Claude threw a census in 48 which counted 5,984,072 citizens Roman, an increase of nearly a million since it led to the death of Augustus. He himself had helped to increase the population through the founding of Roman colonies in which they granted full Roman citizenship. These colonies were sometimes derived from pre-existing communities, particularly those that included reaching elite to rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several of these colonies were placed in new provinces or at the border of the Empire to capture as quickly as possible the Roman conquests.
Appearance legislative and legal
First, Claude personally thought a large number of cases during his reign. The ancient historians gave him often criticized, especially as its decisions have been variable and are sometimes excluded from the law. It was also considered to be influenced. Claude however took a deep reflection on the judiciary. He treated and the congestion of the courts. He extended the summer sessions and winter of the court by shortening its traditional breaks, and had also passed a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in town during the processing of their cases, as was already the case for the accused; This had the effect of disposing of a number of court cases.
Moreover, the minimum age was raised to jurors for their 25 years experience guarantee.
Then Claude arbitrated disputes in the provinces. He freed and the islands of Rhodes to reward their loyalty, he exempted Trojan taxes. Similarly, it settled the matter of Alexandria. Early in his reign, in fact, the Greeks and the Jews of Alexandria sent him an embassy in each following riots between the two communities. In response, Claude wrote a letter to the Alexandrians that reaffirmed the rights of Jews in this city but forbade them at the same time to continue sending settlers in droves. According to Josephus, he then recognized the rights and freedoms of all the Jews of the empire. Finally, the edict preserved by the Tabula Clesiana shows how he tried to find a realistic solution to the situation of Trent. An envoy of Claudius had indeed discovered that many Roman citizens from the city of Trent did not actually have the quality and the Emperor said in a statement that from that day they would be regarded as having full Citizenship: depriving them of their illegally acquired status would have been a source of considerable problems. In individual cases, however, Claude was able to be very tough on fake people and made it a crime punishable by death, so the freed falsely claiming to the quality of knights were reduced to slavery. This reflects a pragmatic approach to the granting of citizenship, Claude showing a remarkable openness of this area without wanting to belittle the dignity of citizenship.
The publication of numerous edicts marked the reign of Claudius. They touched on various subjects ranging from medical to moral. Two medical examples particularly memorable reached us: one advised the juice of yew against snake bites, and another praised the public flatulence for good health. A decree remained famous addressed the status of sick slaves, in effect until then the teachers abandoned the sick slaves died in the Temple of Aesculapius and the salvaged if they survived. Claude decided that the slaves be freed and healed that teachers who choose to kill their slaves rather than take that risk would be prosecuted for murder.
Public Buildings
Claude was involved in many public buildings in Rome and in the provinces. He built two aqueducts , the Aqua Claudia , which was begun under Caligula , and the Aqua Anio Novus. They reached the city in 52 , joining the famous Porta Maggiore. He restored a third, the Aqua Virgo.
His interests include channels of communication and supply, where roads and canals, in Italy as in the provinces. In particular, he built a canal from the Rhine to the sea route from Italy to Germany, putting the final touches on projects initiated by his father Drusus.
In addition to Rome, he dug a navigable canal on the Tiber that led to Portus, his new port, located north of Ostia. This port was built in a semicircle around two breakwaters, a lighthouse occupy his mouth. This construction was also reduces flooding of Rome.
The construction of the port of Ostia was also partly a solution to shortages of wheat, common in the winter (off season for navigation). Indeed, at the same time it sought to ensure the ships of grain merchants who take the risk of travel in Egypt in the winter months, and they gave their sailors to special privileges, such as citizenship and exemption from the law Papia-Poppea (which regulated the marriage). Moreover, it repealed the taxes that Caligula had imposed on food and reduced those affecting more communities suffering from drought or famine. For the same purpose Claude wished to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. We tried to drain the lake Fucino , which also had the considerable advantage of making the river navigable all year. A tunnel was drilled in the bed of the lake, but it was a failure: the tunnel was not large enough to carry water, he collapsed, which made it recede. The draining of the lake, however, was not a futile idea, and many rulers and leaders set to work: the emperors Hadrian and Trajan , the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in the Middle Ages. The actual implementation had not until the nineteenth century the Prince Alessandro Torlonia , which made for tripling the size of the original Claudian tunnel.
Relations of Claudius and the Senate
Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claude took great pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the emperor was sitting among the assembled Senate, speaking when it came his turn. During the presentation of a law, he was sitting on a bench between the consuls in his role as bearer of the power tributienne (the emperor could not officially serve as tribune of the people because of its status as a patrician , but power was taken by previous emperors).
He refused the title of his predecessors (including Imperator ) at the beginning of his reign, to earn his spurs. He allowed the Senate to beat his own bronze coin for the first time since Augustus.
It also gave the imperial provinces of Macedonia and Achaia under the control of the Senate.
Claude reorganized the Senate to make it more representative and effective. For example, he chided senators for their reluctance to debate bills initiated by the Emperor, as shown in this excerpt from speech found on a fragment of papyrus.
"If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say it now and just according to your convictions. If you do not agree, find alternatives, but also made here and now, or if you want to take time for reflection, take as long as you do not forget that you must be willing to speak your opinion whenever you can be called to get together. Should be the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat comments of consuls verbatim as if it was his opinion and that any other should simply say "I approve" and then, after the adjournment, the assembly should announce "We debated. "
- Translation of Papyrus Berlin by WD Hogarth, in Momigliano (1934).
It is not known if this admonition had any effect.
Claude however, was the architect of larger changes in the Roman senate. He innovated the practice of adlectio which allowed the emperor to appoint a senator and directly control its reputation and seniority within the assembly. At its censorship , as evidenced by the Annals of Tacitus and Tables Claudiennes , he imposed a reluctant Senate the opportunity to serve in the senate for the Gauls from the Three Gauls and Romanized the most richest.
Centralization of power
Claude was not the first emperor to use freed to assist in the daily administration of the empire, but under his reign, they achieved great powers.
Claude has been forced to increase their role when the powers of the Princeps became more centralized and the burden of responsibility more and more.
This was partly due to the hostility of the Senate, as mentioned above, but also? ? Because of his respect for the senators. Claude did not want to have free-born magistrates to serve under his authority as if they were not his peers.
The secretariat was divided into imperial office, and each office was under the authority of a freedman.
Some are famous. Thus, Narcissus was the secretary to the correspondence, Pallas became the secretary to the Treasury, and Callistus Justice Secretary.
There was a fourth office for other matters, which was under the authority of Polybius to execution for treason.
These freedmen could formally comment on behalf of the emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops before the conquest of Britain.
Ancient sources tell us that the senators were dismayed that positions can be as important in the hands of former slaves. They seemed to them that the fact that the freedmen had total control of money, letters and law, they manipulated the Emperor to make questionable decisions.
However, these same sources admit, along with the accusations, contend that the freedmen were loyal to Claude
Reforms in religious matters
Claude, as author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, felt legitimate to establish its own reforms.
He had strong views on what should be the appropriate practices of the state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple, arguing that only the gods may choose new gods. It restores the holidays fell into disuse and canceled many foreign celebrations instituted by his predecessor Caligula.
He rehabilitation of old practices like the old language in the celebrations. Claude was concerned with the dissemination of mystery cults in the Eastern City and sought Roman equivalents.
For example, he favored the Mysteries of Eleusis who had been charged during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers to be replaced by the seers of Roman traditions (the soothsayers ).
He suppressed particularly hard on Druidism , because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion. It would also once expelled the Jews from Rome, probably because of problems due to the appearance of Christianity.
Claude was opposed to conversions regardless of religion, including in areas where it gave residents the freedom of belief. The results of these efforts have been recognized even by Seneca, who nevertheless despises the old superstitious practices , Claude defends its satire.
Claude staged the ancient Games (every 100 years), marking the 800th anniversary of the founding of Rome, Augustus was well organized these games less than a century ago. The excuse of Augustus was the interval between games was 110 years, not 100, but its date has actually qualified in any reasoning. Claude represented naval battles attempts to celebrate the lake's drainage Fucine, and many other circus games and shows.
Death, deification and posterity
The ancient historians agree that Claude is poisoned - probably by fungi - on the morning of 13 October 54. But the details vary widely. Some say that Claudius was in Rome while others say it was Sinuessa . Some involve Halotus, his taster, Xenophon, his doctor or the poisoner Locusta as the administrator of the fatal substance . Some say he died after a long illness following a single dose at dinner, others believe he has recovered before being poisoned again . Almost all involve his wife Agrippina as the instigator. Claudius and Agrippina objected more often in the months preceding his death, to the point that Claudius openly lamented his bad women and began to talk of the young Britannicus assuming a return within the imperial family . Agrippina was the motivation to ensure the succession to Nero before Britannicus could not take power. Some modern writers have developed doubts about the poisoning of Claudius and spoke of madness and old age . Others argue that the universality of murder charges in Sunset supports the theory of the assassination .
Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Names and titles
Names successive
- -10 , born TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS DRVSVS
- 4 , adoption of his brother Germanicus : TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS NERO GERMANICVS
- 41 , hailed imperator: TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS CAESAR Avgvstvs GERMANICVS
Titles and XXX
- Pontifex maximus in 41
- Consul in 37 , 42 , 43 , 47 , 51
- Holds the power tribunician from 41 (renewed on January 25 every year)
- Pater patriae in 42
Titulary to his death
At his death in 54 Claudius had the titular following:
- TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS CAESAR Avgvstvs GERMANICVS, PONTIFEX MAXIMVS, TRIBVNICIAE potestatis XIV CONSVL V IMPERATOR XXVII Pater Patriae
Note: Claudius was deified after his death by the Senate.
Claude held a temple Camulodunum ( Colchester ), the first capital and the first Roman colony of Great Britain.
Bibliography
Historical studies
- Scramuzza Vincent, The Emperor Claudius, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1940
- Barbara Levick, Claudius, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1990.
- Baldwin, B. "Executions Under Claudius: Seneca's Ludus de Morte Claudii." Phoenix 18 (1964).
- Fasolin, D. "Aggiornamento ed bibliografico epigrafico ragionato sull'imperatore Claudio", Milano 2006
- Griffin, M. Claudius in Tacitus. "Classical Quarterly, 40 (1990), 482-501.
- Levick, BM, Claudius: Antiquarian or Revolutionary? "American Journal of Philology, 99 (1978), 79-105.
- Levick, Barbara. Claudius. Yale University Press. New Haven, 1990.
- Leon, EF, "The Emperor Claudius Of The drivel", Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 79 (1948), 79-86.
- McAlindon, D., "Claudius & the Senators," American Journal of Philology, 78 (1957), 279-286.
- Major, A., "Was He Pushed or Did He Leap? Claudius' Ascent to Power", Ancient History, 22 (1992), 25-31.
- Momigliano, Arnaldo. Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement Trans. WD Hogarth. W. Heffer and Sons. Cambridge, 1934.
- Oost, SV, "The Career of M. Antonius Pallas", American Journal of Philology, 79 (1958). 113-139.
- Ruth, Thomas De Coursey. The Problem of Claudius. (Johns Hopkins Diss., 1916).
- Ryan, FX "Some Observations On The Censorship of Claudius and Vitellius, AD 47-48," American Journal of Philology, 114 (1993), 611-618.
- Scramuzza, Vincent. The Emperor Claudius Harvard University Press. Cambridge, 1940.
- Stuart, M. "The Date Of The Inscription of Claudius On The Arch of Ticinum" Am J. Arch. 40 (1936). 314-322.
- Suhr, EG, "A Portrait of Claudius' Am J. Arch. 59 (1955). 319-322.
- Vessey, DWTC "Thoughts on Tacitus' Portrayal of Claudius" American Journal of Philology, 92 (1971), 385-409.
Works of fiction
- Robert Graves , I, Claude , novel, Gallimard
- Robert Graves , The God Claude, which was shot the TV series.
Filmography
- Me Claude emperor , television series BBC (1976), based on the novel by Robert Graves, with Derek Jacobi
Sources
- Seneca , Apocoloquintose External Links
References
- Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Claude , 30.
- Seneca Apocolo. 5, 6.
- Suetonius, Claude 30.
- Suetonius, Claud. 31.
- Suetonius, Claud. 38.
- Leon (1948).
- Suetonius, Claud. 5, 21, 40, Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2, 5, 12, 31.
- Suet. Claud. 34, 38. Tacitus Ann. XII 20.
- Suetonius, Claud. 35, 36, 37, 39, 40. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2, 3.
- Suetonius, Claud. 29. Dio Rom. Hist. LX 2, 8.
- (en) Letter Of The Emperor Claudius To The Alexandrians
- Dio Cassius, Hist. Rom. LX 2
- Suetonius, Claud 3.
- Suetonius, Claud. 2 and 4
- Suetonius, Claud. 4.
- Scramuzza (1940) p. 39.
- Stuart (1936).
- Dio Cassius Hist. Rom. LX 2. Suhr (1955).
- Staff, 1992
- Josephus , Antiquitates Iudiacae, XIX, 212. Dio Cassius, Hist. Rom., LX 1.
- Josephus Ant. Iud. XIX.
- Josephus Bellum Iudiacum II, 204-233.
- Suetonius, Claud. 15. Dio Cassius, Hist. Rom. LXI 33.
- Tac. "Ann." XII 65. Seneca "Ad Polybium."
- Pliny "Natural History" 134.
- What happened in reality is still a subject of controversy. Suetonius and the Acts of the Apostles ) (18:2) tells the event, Dion Cassius and minimizes the Flavius Josephus - who nevertheless wrote mainly about the events involving the Jew ] s - do not mention it at all. Some historians speculate that the expulsion of the Jews of Rome was never passed, while others believe that only a few missionaries were expelled for a short exile.
- see Seneca Design # religion
- The Seneca Apocoloquintose. (the transformation of the Emperor Claudius in pumpkin). 9.
- a and b Suetonius, Claud. 44
- Tacitus, Ann. XII 66
- On his death, Suetonius, Claud. 43, 44. Tacitus, Ann. XII 64, 66-67. Josephus Ant. Iud. XX 148, 151. Dion Cassius, Rom. Hist. LX 34 Pliny Natural History II 92, XI 189, XXII 92.
- Suetonius, Claud. 43
- Scramuzza, (1940) pp. 92-93, says that the tradition of each emperor is a victim of a crime, therefore we can not know if Claude was actually murdered. Levick (1990) pp. 76-77. raises the possibility that Claude was killed by the tensions generated by the conflict with Agrippina on the estate, but found that the sequence of events makes the killing most likely cause.
- Levick (1990) is also opposed to the idea of the murder of Augustus which is based on Tacitus and Dio Cassius, based on Tacitus himself. Suetonius, always aware of the rumors, did not mention.
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