Civil War Of 1947 1948 In Mandatory Palestine

Outbreak of civil war (30 November 1947-1 ^April 1948)

Immediately after the adoption of the partition plan by the UN , the jubilation of the Jewish community are counterbalanced by opposition demonstrations across the Arab countries and from the ¹ December , the High Committee Arab decreed a general strike of three days .

A "wind of violence" will settle quickly and spontaneously, heralding the "civil war" .

Rise of Violence

Ben Yehuda street after the attack of 22 February 1948

In all the mixed areas where both communities live in Jerusalem and Haifa in particular, attacks, reprisal and retaliation-cons increasingly violent succeed. The sniping evolve into pitched battles, the attacks against the traffic turn into ambushes. Attacks increasingly bloody occur, which in turn respond to riots, retaliation and other attacks.

For example, the December 30 , in Haifa , members of the Irgun launched two bombs in a crowd of Arab workers queuing in front of a refinery, killing 6 of them and wounding 42. The angry mob killed 39 Jews in retaliation before the British soldiers will restore calm ^, . In retaliation, on December 31 , soldiers from the Palmach and Caramel Brigade attacked the village of Balad al-Sheikh and Hawassa. According to various historians, they are between 21 and 70 deaths .

On February 22 , in Jerusalem , the men of Hajj Amin al-Husseini organized with the help of British deserters a triple suicide car bomb aimed offices of the newspaper The Palestine Post , Market Street and the Ben Yehuda 'backyard offices of the Jewish Agency, which respectively 22, 53 and 13 Jews dead and hundreds injured ^, . On February 29 , in retaliation, the Lehi mine track railway Cairo - Haifa north of Rehovot , killing 28 British soldiers and wounding 35 . It repeats the operation on March 31 near Caesarea , killing 40 people and wounding 60, mostly Arab civilians .

Over the period of December 1947 and January 1948 , there are nearly 1,000 dead and 2,000 injured . In late March, one report of over 2000 dead and 4000 injured . These figures are an average of more than 100 deaths and 200 injuries every week. And this, from a total of 2 million inhabitants.

War and blockade roads to Jerusalem

History of the Jewish areas

Areas of Jewish settlement in Palestine and roads on 1 December 1947

Outside the coastal zone, areas of operations of the Yishuv in Palestine are very scattered. The communication between the central area the most developed and peripheral areas is by road links. These bonds are a much easier target than most cross or run alongside Arab communities, and sometimes entirely Arab areas.

In this configuration, the "isolation" of 100,000 Jews from Jerusalem and surroundings (such as Gush Etzion , midway on the strategic road between Jerusalem and Hebron ), one of 27 villages and settlements in the Negev and the those of northern Galilee is a strategic weakness for the Yishuv.

The possibility of evacuating these areas is considered difficult to defend but to Jerusalem as in all of Palestine, the policy of the Haganah was set by Ben-Gurion. It is simple. "What held the Jews must be preserved. No Jew must abandon his home, his farm, the kibbutz or work without permission. Each outpost, every colony, every village, regardless of isolation, must be occupied as if it were Tel Aviv itself. " In fact, no Jewish settlement was evacuated before the invasion of May 1948. Only a dozen kibbutzim in Galilee as well as those of Gush Etzion send women and children in safer areas of the interior .

Ben Gurion gives instructions for building settlements in the Negev in men and material , especially in the kibbutz of Kfar Darom and Yad Mordechai (northern Gaza), Revivim (south of Beer-Sheva ) and Gush Etzion. Aware of the danger hanging over the Negev, the Supreme Commander of the Haganah assigns an entire battalion of the Palmach .

The case of Jerusalem is even more critical because of its large Jewish population (1 / 6 ^th of the total Yishuv) and the great difficulty of access of the city. Highway Tel Aviv - Jerusalem is long and steep. She left the area Jewish Hulda then follows the foothills of Latrun. Then, the route of 28 km between Bab el-Oued and Jerusalem is not less than 3 hours and the road passes through or near Arab villages such Saris Qastel , Deir Yassin , or Qaluniya .

Strategy Abd al-Kader al-Husseini

Abdel Kader al-Husseini

Abd al-Kader al-Husseini arrived in Jerusalem in December 1947 with the objective to "stifle" the Jewish community in the city .

He moved to Tzurif, a village southwest of Jerusalem with his men a hundred fighters who have trained in Syria before the war and which serve as frames for his army, the Jaysh al-Jihad al-Muqaddas. He is joined by one hundred young villagers and veterans of the British Army . The Army is moving quickly to thousands of men and transferred its headquarters and training center in Bir Zeit, near Ramallah. Its area of influence extends Lydda and Ramleh where Hassan Salameh , a veteran of the Great Revolt of 1936-39 at the head of 1000 men , coordinates its actions with Abdel Kader al-Husseini in the harassment of traffic .

On December 10 , the first organized attack on a convoy occurs between Bethlehem and Gush Etzion. Ten passengers and escorts are killed .

On January 14 , Abdel Kader personally led an attack against Kfar Etzion in which 1,000 men are involved. The attack was a failure and he leaves 200 dead behind him. However, a section of 35 men from the Palmach seeking to strengthen the implementation gets caught, then surround and kill .

On January 25 , a major attack takes place in the Arab village of Qastel. Following an appeal of Abdel Kader al-Husseini, several villages in the north-east of Jerusalem will join the attack. Others prefer not to join for fear of reprisals or apologize to their Jewish neighbors arguing that the appeal was not about the attack on the convoy but the defense of the nearby village of Bet Suriq .

The campaign for control of the roads is a growing military and focuses the Arab war effort . As of March 22 , supply convoys to Jerusalem do not pass. That day, a convoy of around thirty vehicles are destroyed in the gorges of Bab el-Oued . On March 27 , a major supply convoy returning from Kfar Etzion is caught in an ambush south of Jerusalem. Surrounded by thousands of Arabs and short of ammunition , seeking the assistance of the British after 24 hours of fighting. They must still give up weapons and ammunition, but above all vehicles to the Arabs.

According to a British report, the status of Jerusalem , where a food rationing is already in use, may become desperate after May 15 . At the same time, the situation is equally critical for Jews in other parts of the country. On March 26 , colonies of the Negev are separated by the inability to use the coastal road south passes through areas of dense Arab population . On March 27 , a convoy of supplies for the isolated kibbutz in the north-west of Galilee was attacked in the area of Haifa. Between 42 and 47 fighters of the Haganah and a hundred of the Arab Liberation Army were killed. All vehicles are destroyed ^{, ,} .

Results

The balance of losses last week of March is heavy for the Haganah , three large convoys were ambushed, killed more than 100 soldiers and most of the armored vehicle fleet is destroyed .

Overall, Jerusalem -West "suffocating" Gradually, settlements of Galilee can not be reached via the Jordan Valley and the road to Nahariya, both dominated by Arab villages. Haifa itself can not be reached via Tel Aviv by the main coastal road, as a "chain" of Arab villages in the northern part dominates. South, near Hebron , the four colonies of the Etzion Bloc are under siege. The twenty settlements of Negev are isolated and the pipeline that fills up the water regularly sabotaged .

This situation, the necessity of preparing the Yishuv in the planned attack of Arab States in May and advanced in the British left will push the Haganah to go on the offensive and implement the Plan Dalet in April .

Entry of foreign forces in Palestine

Arab volunteers in Palestine (1947)

The violence intensifies and certain transactions involving the military. Although responsible for order and law until the end of the mandate, the Mandatory authorities do not try to regain control of the situation. They are more involved in the liquidation of the administration and the evacuation of their troops ^, . They also believe to have lost enough men in this conflict.

The British can not (or will not) prevent the entry of foreign forces in Palestine . According to a Special Report of the Committee on Palestine :

• On the night of 20 to 21 January , a troop of 700 Syrians in battle dress, well equipped and have mechanized transport between Palestine "via Transjordan."
• On January 27 , a "band of 300 men from outside of Palestine, was established in the region of Safed in Galilee , and is probably responsible for the intense attacks with mortars and heavy weapons of the week cons Colony Yechiam. "
• On the night of 29 to 30 January , a troop of 950 men of the Arab Liberation Army , commanded by Fawzi al-Qawuqji , carried in 19 vehicles and consists of Arabs from non-Palestinian in Palestine "via the bridge Damiyeh and dispersed in the villages of Nablus , Jenin and Tulkarem.

Those are the troops of the Arab Liberation Army who enter Palestine between 10 January and early March :

• the ^2nd Regiment Yarmouk under the command of Shishakli Adib comes into Galilee through Lebanon on the night of 11 to Jan. 12 , through Safed and settled in the village of Sasa. It is composed of one third of Palestinians and a quarter of Syrians ;
• ^1st Regiment Yarmouk under the command of Muhammad Tzafa in Palestine between the night of 20 to 21 January via Damia Bridge on the Jordan and disperses in Samaria. He established his headquarters in northern Samaria, in Tubas. It is composed primarily of Palestinians and Iraqis ;
• Hittin the regiment under the command of Abbas Madlul moved to the west of Samaria with its headquarters in Tulkarem ;
• regiment Hussein ibn Ali strengthens Haifa , Jaffa , Jerusalem and several other cities;
• Qadassia the regiment and a unit remained in reserve at Circassian Jab'a

Qawuqji arrives on him on March 4 with the rest of the logistics and hundreds of volunteers Bosnian and set up his headquarters in the village of Jab'a on the road Nablus - Jenin. It also mounts a training center for Palestinian volunteers.

Alan Cunningham , the British High Commissioner in Palestine protested strongly to the Jordanian government against these incursions, with the only reaction to see Alek Kirkbride complaining of "hostile tone and its threats," the Minister Bevin. "No serious effort is made to prevent the incursion. " .

The British and the intelligence services of the Yishuv expect an offensive on 15 February , which will not take place, apparently because it forces the Mufti are not yet ready .

In March , an Iraqi detachment of the Arab Liberation Army strengthens the forces of Palestinian Salameh in the region of Lydda and Ramleh to train recruits as a result of the presence of Qawuqji Samaria, Abdel Kader al-Husseini established his HQ Bir Zeit, 10 km north of Ramallah .

Meanwhile, volunteers in North Africa, mainly Libyan and hundreds of Muslim Brotherhood come to Palestine. In March , a first contingent arrives in Gaza to infiltrate and some Jaffa.

Moral fighters

These early victories strengthen the morale of Arab fighters .

The Arab Higher Committee / A> is confident and determined to oppose the carrying of the sharing plan. In a press release dated February 6 to Secretary General, he stated . "The attacks against settlements and major roads were caught off guard the Jewish leadership, who had underestimated the intensity of the Arab reaction" The situation of the 100,000 Jews in Jerusalem is precarious and supply of the city may be interrupted.

Despite the setbacks on the ground forces and particularly the Jewish Haganah, are superior in numbers and quality to the Arab forces, as the Arab Higher Committee as the Arab Liberation Army. "The Haganah remained on static positions for fear of the British to defend the Arabs when Zionist offensive. Wait until the British withdrawal is sufficiently important that any risk of interference is rejected them " .

First wave of Arab refugees

The morale of fighters and politicians is not shared by the Palestinian population: "panic grows in the Arab upper classes and there has been a steady exodus from those who can afford to leave the country" . From December 1947 to January 1948 , approximately 70,000 Arabs fleeing cities . In late March, the total rises to refugees around 100,000 .

They are the first wave, this one mainly voluntary, Palestinian refugees of the conflict. Among them there are mainly members of the middle and upper classes, most of whose families representatives of the Arab Higher Committee or local leaders . Also leave the Arab foreigners settled in Palestine . All certainly hope to return to Palestine after the war ended .

Foreign Policy Decisions

Several policy decisions taken abroad will have an important influence on the course of the conflict.

The British choice of the Jordanian option

makers of foreign policy after World War II gathered in Potsdam (1945). Present: Truman, Stalin and Bevin (2nd top left) include

The British do not want a Palestinian state led by the Mufti. The final decision to support the British annexation of the Arab part of Palestine by the King Abdullah has officially taken 7 February 1948 .

At a meeting in London between Jordanian officials, Glubb Pasha and Ernest Bevin , the parties agree that the British facilitate the entry of the Arab Legion in Palestine on May 15 and that it occupies part Arabic. However, it must not enter the area of Jerusalem nor the Jewish State .

This option does not provide for Palestinian Arab state.

If the ambitions of King Abdullah is known, there is no indication to what extent the authorities Yishuv , the Arab Higher Committee and the Arab League are aware of this decision.

The U.S. reversal

In mid-March, before the spread of disorder and fear against a yet-unfounded-judged to see the Arab advance the weapon of oil embargo , the U.S. administration announced the withdrawal of its possible support the partition plan and the sending of an international force to ensure the application but suggested to Palestine under Trusteeship UN ^, . On ¹ April , the Security Council vote on the American proposal calling for the convening of a special meeting for reconsideration of the Palestinian problem. The Soviets refrain from voting .

This shift raises concerns and debates within the authorities of the Yishuv.

The anxiety of facing the Arab armies without the support of the United States after the British left is even greater at that time, the Husaini forces , militias, however, managed to isolate Jerusalem and to take precedence over the Haganah.

In this context, Elie Sasson, director of the Arab section of the Jewish Agency , and several other personalities, eventually persuade David Ben Gurion and Golda Meyerson to advance a diplomatic initiative towards the Arabs. They delegate to Joshua Palmon , the head of the Arabic section of the care Da'at contact Fawzi al-Qawuqji to negotiate, however, prohibiting him to accept anything that might limit the "freedom of action of the Haganah " but allowing it to declare that "Jews are ready for a truce" .

The logistic support of the Eastern bloc

In the context of the embargo imposed by western countries to belligerent Palestinian Jews as Arabs, and in the context of the significant lack of material, non-compliance with the embargo and support logistics Czechoslovak decided by Stalin played in the war an important role differently appreciated .

Some reasons given for choosing Stalin is Soviet support the partition plan and an interest in helping financially Czechoslovakia to reduce his frustration at having to abandon the Marshall Plan .

The magnitude and the practical role of this support is controversial. The figures vary by historians. Gelber talks about "small shipments arriving by air from Czechoslovakia (...) starting from April 1948 " . Historians and commentators (pro-) Palestinians see it as unbalanced support for the Yishuv since the Arab Palestinians did not receive equal support . What historians and commentators respond that the embargo was not about the Arab rulers who were the greatest threat to the Yishuv. However, this embargo is their extended in May by the Security Council of UN , so they cause major problems . In many circumstances, this embargo is also not respected by the British ^, .

The Syria buys in Czechoslovakia , from the same manufacturer as the Zionists, weapons for the Arab Liberation Army. These weapons do not succeed, however, because the fighters are Jewish agents sink the ship in the Italian port of Bari. After its bailout, the boat left for Syria in August 1948 but was intercepted by the Israeli navy seized in the content .

This point is also discussed in the section Problem of the material.

Refusal of direct involvement of the Arab leaders

Contrary to what may suggest their bellicose statements, Arab leaders "did everything to avoid being directly "involved in supporting the Palestinian cause .

At the top of the Arab League of October 1947 , in Aley, the Iraqi general Ismail Safwat paints a realistic picture of the situation. He said the best organization and the largest financial support available to Jews against Palestinians. It calls for the immediate deployment of Arab armies at the borders of Palestine, sending arms and ammunition to the Palestinians and a financial contribution up to a million pounds. His proposals were rejected with the exception of financial support, however, is not followed in practice. We vote still forming a committee to coordinate military-technical "assistance" to the Palestinians. He is based in Cairo and headed by Sawfat who is assisted by Syrian and Lebanese officers and representatives of the Arab Higher Committee. A delegate is appointed Transjordanian but it does not participate in meetings .

At the summit in December in Cairo , in Egypt , under pressure from their publics, Arab leaders decided to create a unified military command bringing together all the chiefs of staff and put Arab Safwat his head but they remain deaf to the reiteration of his claims in October, preferring to postpone any decision by the end of the Mandate . They decide, however, the formation of the Arab Liberation Army which comes in Palestine in the following weeks .

In February , at Cairo , during a committee meeting Safwat, it still repeats his claims but Arab governments hope that the Palestinians, aided by troops of the Arab Liberation Army managed to ensure that the international community to renounce the partition plan. The following advice is planned for early April .

For its part, the Haganah misinterprets Arab plans. Following the entry of the Arab Liberation Army , it postulates that the date of the Cairo meeting is in fact the date of D-Day offensive troops of al-Qawuqji in Palestine .

This refusal to engage directly that the Arab armies were not prepared for war when the situation makes their intervention inevitable.

Hardware Problem

Sten submachine gun and PIAT (bazooka type developed by the British).

If Arab countries have regular armies and state structures to ensure their sources of supply of weapons, ammunition and equipment, this is not the case for other parties to the conflict. For the Palestinian Arabs and Jews, the situation is more delicate because the British have always prohibited the possession of weapons and confiscated everything they could find. One and one do neither heavy weapons, nor opportunities given to a state recognized and established. Their strengths and how to remain clandestine.

The Arab Liberation Army is in theory financed and equipped by the Arab League. A budget of one million Pounds has been pledged for this purpose following the insistence of Ismail Safwat. But in practice the money is not only Syria and provides real support to Arab volunteers. On the field, the logistics were completely neglected and their leader Fawzi al-Qawuqji has scheduled a live troops at the expense of the Palestinian population .

The situation of the Jaysh al-Jihad al-Muqaddas and Palestinian forces is worse. They can not rely on any external support and to do only those funds collected by Hajj Amin al-Husseini. Their weaponry is limited to what the fighters have personally. To remedy this situation, they must be content with weapons bought on the black market and looting of warehouses UK but they do not have enough weapons to wage war .

The situation of the Jews is a bit better in that they have several clandestine facilities for manufacturing arms and ammunition, and networks that enable the clandestine in Palestine but far from what is necessary to conduct war: in November, only three fighter is armed and this proportion rises to two out of three in the Palmach .

However, for David Ben Gurion , the problem is not to wage war but to build an army worthy of a state. The importance of giving to it is illustrated by a practice that initiates and is followed by many successors: combine the posts of Prime Minister and Minister of Defence .

To arm but also equipping the army, he sent agents to Europe and USA. The latter will get the necessary support: arms and ammunition began to arrive in early April. Heavy weapons will be operational from June

Until March, the Haganah fighting so the Jaysh al-Jihad al-Muqaddas with the same lack of equipment and that it is inferior compared to the Arab Liberation Army. From April, it has superior weapons to the Palestinians. After May 15, during the first weeks of fighting between Israel and Arab states , the advantage in hardware will play in favor of the Arab states. From June, and especially after the first truce, the advantage in material look much against Israelis. This evolving situation arose following the contacts and soon before November 1947.

Thus, Czechoslovakia agents Yishuv providing hunters get AVIA (former Messerschmitt ) and later Supermarine ( Spitfire ) but also of cannons, machine guns and ammunition . Stocks in the Second World War , they provide all equipment necessary for equipping an army and the vehicles needed to transport and logistics . In France, they acquire armor despite the embargo . The Jewish agents also buy machines for the manufacture of weapons and ammunition that are the basis for the Israeli armaments industry . In the USA, they buy a few bombers and transport aircraft which should allow the flow of arms purchased in Europe. Operation Balak intended to convey the material begins in late March . Vessels are chartered in various European ports to the hardware can be routed to May 15 To finance all this, Golda Meir came late December to raise 25 million dollars during a campaign raising funds from American sympathizers led to the Zionist cause . Overall, the 129 million dollars collected between October 1947 and March 1949 for the Zionist cause, more than 78 million will be spent on arms .

Reorganisation of Haganah

Theater of operations of each brigade of the Haganah

With having "led the Jews in Palestine and elsewhere to do everything, personally and financially to help the Yishuv, the second major success of Ben-Gurion is to transform the Haganah underground paramilitary organization into a real army .

Ben-Gurion appointed Israel Galili to head the Council of the High Command of the Haganah and splits it into 6 infantry brigades - numbered 1 to 6 - which are assigned a specific theater of operations. Yaakov Dori was appointed Chief 'staff but Yigal Yadin who assumes responsibility in the field as operations manager. The Palmach commanded by Yigal Allon is divided into 3 brigades elites - numbered 10 to 12 - and is the moving force of the Haganah ^, .

On 19 November 1947, conscription was enacted for men and women between 17 and 25. End of March, 21,000 conscripts have received military training ^, . March 30, the call is extended to men and unmarried women aged between 26 and 35. Five days later, the general mobilization order is issued for all men under 40 years .

Late November , the tactical unit is the company and the operating unit section. Around March - April , the tactical unit passes the brigade level. These units operate at the operational as of April - May during the second phase of the war but remain under-equipped. From April , the Haganah engaged in operations at the brigade. Starting in July , she will conduct coordinated operations involving several brigades and starting of October , will operate at the division with an offensive on several fronts simultaneously .

Plan Dalet (March 1948)

Yaakov Dori , Chief of Staff of the Haganah and his right arm Yigal Yadin , Chief of Operations

The Plan Dalet was finalized on 10 March 1948 under the direction of Yigal Yadin. This 75-page plan sets out the rules and objectives that are followed by the Haganah during the second phase of the war.

Its main objective is to ensure the territorial contiguity of the Yishuv , particularly in response to war led by roads Abdel Kader al-Husseini and in anticipation of the coming war in Arab countries.

There is some controversy among historians about this plan. Some see a plan of ethnic cleansing or evidence of such intentions against the Palestinians and the leadership of the Yishuv would be implemented. According to others, the plan goes far beyond the Daleth context of the Palestinian exodus and has a purely military character. The controversy is presented in detail in the article on the Plan Dalet.

Offensive of the Haganah ⁽¹ April 1948-15 May 1948)

The second phase which begins in April marks the turning point in the policy of the Haganah , which passes from the defensive to the offensive. Palestinian armed groups were defeated. The siege of Jerusalem is temporarily lifted and the city resupplied. The Yishuv took control of the main roads linking the various settlements and communities and mixed Jaffa. Palestinian society is collapsing. A mass exodus snaps.

At this time, the Arab forces of about 10 000 men with 3 000 to 5000 serving in the Arab Liberation Army ^, . Since the general mobilization order issued by Ben Gurion in November, the staff of the Haganah had steadily increased. Jewish forces align between 15 000 and 20 000 men, better equipped, trained and organized than the Palestinian Arab forces ^, .

Operation Nahshon (April 5 to April 20)

Theater Operations

In late March, troops of Abdel Kader Husseini prevent convoys from reaching Jerusalem. The city is besieged and the Jewish population is rationed. Following the modus operandi recommended by Plan Dalet, David Ben Gurion decided to launch Operation Nachshon to open up and supply the city .

From 5 to April 20 , 1500 Men of Givati Brigade and Harel will take control of the road and enable 3 (or 4) convoys to resupply Jerusalem.

Haganah soldier in the village of Qastel on April 5 1948

The operation was a military success. All the Arab villages that were blocking the road were taken and destroyed and the Jewish forces emerged victorious from all undertakings. All objectives are not met, however, as only 1,800 tonnes on the 3000 set are removed, what is "take two months of severe rationing" .

Abdel Kader al-Husseini was killed during the night of 7 April 8 during the fighting that took place Qastel. The loss of the charismatic leader of Palestine, "overturns the strategy and organization in the Arab sector of Jerusalem" . His successor, Emil Ghuri changed tactics to block the city. Instead of causing a series of ambushes along the way, he built on April 20 a "huge" dam Bab-el-Oued and Jerusalem was again isolated .

Operation Nahshon has also shown very poor organization facing the Palestinian Arab war. Lack of logistics, including food supplies and ammunition, they are unable to maintain the fighting more than a few hours outside their permanent bases

Responding to events, the Arab Higher Committee asked the Commissioner Cunningham to authorize the return of the Mufti, which alone can remedy the situation. Despite the authorization, it does not go to Jerusalem. His fall from prestige paving the way for the expansion of the influence of the Arab Liberation Army and al-Qawuqji sector of Jerusalem .

Massacre of Deir Yassin (9 April 1948)

Deir Yassin is a village located 5 km west of Jerusalem. On 9 April 1948 , outside the framework of Operation Nahshon , 120 members of the Irgun and Lehi massacred there between 100 and 120 people, mostly civilian non-combatants.

The massacre provoked an outcry from the international community, especially as contemporary press reports the figure of 254 victims. Ben Gurion condemned and the principal Jewish authorities: the Haganah , the Chief Rabbinate and the Jewish Agency sends a letter of condemnation, apology and condolence to King Abdullah .

According to Morris , "The most important immediate effect of the massacre and the media campaign on the atrocity that followed was to initiate and promote fear and panic flight later in the villages and towns of Palestine" .

Another important consequence is the impact in the Arab population of neighboring states, which further increases the pressure on their leaders to engage in battle and come to the aid of the Palestinians ^, .

In retaliation, April 13 , a medical convoy heading to the Mount Scopus Hadassah Hospital in Jerusalem was attacked by Arabs. Eighty doctors and nurses were killed. Some British soldiers trying to intervene to stop the massacre, but without success .

Battle of Mishmar Ha'emek (April 4 to April 15, 1948)

Women in training at Mishmar Ha'emek

Mishmar Ha'emek is a kibbutz in the Mapam founded in 1930 in the Jezreel Valley near Highway Haifa -Megiddo- Jenin. It is located on what the officers of the Haganah consider one of the routes into the most likely for a "major Arab attack" against the Yishuv ^, .

On April 4 , the Arab Liberation Army of Fawzi al-Qawuqji launches an attack on the kibbutz with artillery support (7 guns 75 guns and 3 of 88). The attack was repulsed by the kibbutz members joined by soldiers of the Haganah. Artillery fire that destroyed almost all of the kibbutz are stopped by a British column arrived on the scene on the orders of General Mac Millan and April 7 , Fawzi al-Qawuqji accepts a cease-fire for 24 hours but demands the surrender of the kibbutz. The residents in evacuating children and after having consulted Tel Aviv refused the surrender ^, .

The 8 or 9 April , the Haganah prepared the cons-attack as directed by the Plan Dalet. The operations are carried out by Yitzhak Sadeh , with orders to "cleanse" the region. The battle lasted until April 15. Men Sadeh take all the surrounding villages and the Arab Liberation Army should withdraw to its bases Jabba. Most residents fled, but when they did not flee, they are imprisoned or expelled by force to Jenin. Villages are razed while explosives. Massacres and looting have been committed by kibbutzniks .

According to Morris , the fighters of the Liberation Army are demoralized by the reports on Deir Yassin and the death of Abdel Kader al-Husseini. During the fighting, they would generally be folded first abandoning the villagers . Lapierre and Collins report that Joshua Palmon / A>, to lead a squad of six men, have failed to seize the valuable pieces of artillery and portray events as a debacle for which Fawzi al-Qawuqji extravagant excuses, stating inter alia that the Jews had than 120 tanks, six squadrons of bombers and fighters and they were supported by a regiment of Russian non-Jewish volunteers .

In May , the Irgun carried out several operations in the area, razing several villages and committing massacres. Quotas and Golani brigades Alexandroni attacked several villages along and shave .

Battle of Ramat Yohanan and Druze defection

Following the "fiasco" of Mishmar Ha'emek, Fawzi al-Qawuqji regiment commanded the Druze of the Arab Liberation Army , commanded by Shakib Wahab conduct operations diversions to help him. The latter takes place with his men in several Arab villages ten kilometers east of Haifa where he sporadically attack traffic and Jewish settlements, including Ramat Yohanan .

The Haganah and the kibbutzim easily repel attacks and destroy the villages from where they launched their attacks. Once exhausted their ammunition, Druze Wahab retreat to their base Shafa'amr with hundreds of wounded ^, .

The Druze had already been in contact several times with officials of the Yishuv. Following this defeat, the Druze officers, unbeknownst to their leader, make contact with Moshe Dayan their defection to offer and join the ranks of the Haganah. Having referred to Yigal Yadin , he refused the proposal but offers them to carry out sabotage operations on the backs of the Arabs and push their comrades to desert. In early May, these are 212 soldiers who deserted Wahab. Aware of the attitude of his men, in turn Wahab meeting of liaison officers the Jews on May 9 and agrees to cooperate with the Haganah. Parties avoid confrontation and creates an enclave Wahad neutral in the center of the Galilee. He did not respond to calls for help of Acre and avoid being present when the Haganah occupied the fortress Police Shafa'amr during its evacuation by the British .

This attitude influences the fate of Druze after the war. Given the good relations they had with the Yishuv since 1930 and despite their cooperation with the Arab Higher Committee and the Arab League , Ben-Gurion insisted that the Druze (and the Circassians and Maronites ) have a status especially compared to other Arabs .

See and attack mixed communities (April-May 1948)

The Plan Dalet plans to ensure territorial continuity in the areas allocated to the Jews by the partition plan of the UN. Following this strategy, urban or mixed border in this area should be attacked or besieged by the Jews. Tiberias was attacked on April 10 and falls on 16. Haifa falls on April 23 after a single day's fighting. Aviv is attacked April 27 but the British prevented the capture of the city that passes after their departure during the operation chametz. Safed falls on May 11 as part of Operation Yiftach, Beit Shean on May 13 and Acre on 17 May as part of Operation Ben Ami.

The inhabitants fled or were driven out en masse. Of these 6 cities, there remain about late May that 13,000 Arab inhabitants on the initial 177,000. The phenomenon is equivalent in the suburbs and most Arab villages around these cities.

Operation Yiftach (April 20-May 24)

Theater Operations

North-west of Galilee, between Lake Tiberias and Metula (area known as "finger of Galilee") is the area under Jewish control furthest and most isolated centers of the coastal plain. The presence of the Lebanese border to the north of the Syrian border to the east and the Arab presence in the rest of Galilee make it a likely target of the intervention of Arab armies . Under the Plan Dalet , Yigal Yadin entrusted Yigal Allon direction of the operation Yiftach whose objectives are to control the entire region and its consolidation to the Arab attack planned for May 15 .

Yigal Allon has two battalions of the Palmach under-staffed and facing the people of Safed and dozens of Arab villages. The situation is also problematic by the presence of the British although they begin their evacuation from the region. According to his analysis, it is necessary to completely empty the area of the Arab presence to cover his rear, while the exodus clutter the roads which must penetrate the Arab forces .

On April 20 , he launched a campaign combining propaganda, attacks, control of strongholds and abandoned by the British destruction of conquered Arab villages. On May ¹ , Arab militia based in Lebanon and Syria launch a counteroffensive against Jewish settlements but without success. On May 11 , Safed falls and the operation ends on May 24 by the fire of Arab villages in the Hula Valley. Syrian forces fail in their assault on the region and late June, the area from Tiberias to Metula through Safed has been emptied of all its Arab population .

Operation Maccabee (May 8 to May 15)

In continuation of Operation Nachshon and following the new blocking the road Tel Aviv - Jerusalem Yigal Yadin instructs the Givati Brigade 5 ^th and 10 ^th Harel brigade to operate in the western corridor Tel Aviv - Jerusalem to secure it. Several villages changed hands several times but end up being controlled by Jewish forces .

The May 15 morning, a patrol of the Givati Brigade enters the precincts of the police station Latrun. However, following the lead of the Egyptian army, the brigade was ordered to redeploy to the south and the soldiers abandoned the position .

This is a missed opportunity which will have serious consequence in the battle for Jerusalem as the position of Latrun to control the road between Tel Aviv and the Holy City. The six attacks to be carried out between late May and mid-July cons Latrun will fail and all 168 people in the camp of Israel .

Meeting between Abdullah and Golda Meir (May 10)

Golda Meir in 1973

Abdullah ^I of Jordan

On May 10 , Golda Meyerson and Ezra Danin go secretly to Amman to the palace of Abdullah to discuss the situation with him.

Abdullah's position is difficult. On the one hand, his personal ambitions, promises to Yishuv in November and the green light to push the British consider annexing the Arab part of Palestine without any intervention against the future Israeli state. The other, the pressure of his people in reaction to the massacre of Deir Yassin , the Palestinian exodus and its agreements with the other members of the Arab League to urge him to engage more strongly in the war . It also has a strong position, with British military support and that of the Arab League.

In his paper, David Ben Gurion said the statement of the interview made by Golda Meyerson:

"The meeting was friendly. He seemed worried and had a horrible air. He did not deny that there had been discussion and understanding between us about a desirable arrangement, specifically that he would take the Arab part of Palestine. . "

The analysis on the motivations and conclusions of this meeting are controversial.

According to Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins and Israeli historiography, the goal of negotiators Yishuv is "to propose a final peace agreement and prevent the attack by Arab armies." At that time, the balance of forces does not support them theoretically Meyerson but fails to convince the king.

According to Morris , Abdullah "back on its promises of November not to oppose the partition plan", however, leaving the impression that Meyerson would make peace with the Jewish state once the current war completed.

Avi Shlaim himself speaks of a "tacit" agreement to prevent the partition of Palestine with the Palestinians . He defends the thesis of collusion between the Hashemite Kingdom and the Yishuv. The Historian Yoav Gelber rejects this thesis and a book devoted specifically to remove .

Pierre Razoux indicates that "most experts believe it is probable that Ben-Gurion and King Abdullah had agreed to share the Palestine and that only under pressure from Arab countries that Abdullah was forced to break his promise. According to him, this thesis helps explain the attitude of the British who have answered this option according to both the promises made by Balfour in the Yishuv and those made to the Hashemite at the time of Lawrence of Arabia. He stressed that "the presence .

Ilan Pappe points out that neither the ministers of Abdullah, the Arab world does not seem to be aware of discussions between him and the Yishuv, even if its ambitions in Palestine, by cons, are known. It also states that Sir Alek Kirkbride and Glubb Pasha think at the time that at least the Secretary of the Arab League, Azzam Pasha, must be aware of the double game of King Abdullah.

It is certain that by Golda Meyerson cons and King Abdullah did not find agreement on the status of Jerusalem : on May 13 the Arab Legion took Kfar Etzion located midway on the strategic road between Hebron and Jerusalem. 127 of 131 defenders, including 21 women are killed or massacred after their surrender . And May 17 Abdullah ordered Glubb Pasha launched the attack against the holy city.

Fall and Kfar Etzion massacre (May 12 to May 13)

Theater Operations

Kfar Etzion is a block of 4 colonies established strategy on the road between Hebron and Jerusalem in the middle of Arab territory. It includes 400 people in late 1947. Upon adoption of the partition plan, it is under attack Arabs. Ben Gurion did strengthen the December 7 by a section of the Palmach, but authorized the January 8 evacuating women and children.

Since March 26 , when the last supply convoy managed to reach the price of heavy losses, it is completely isolated.

On May 12 at dawn, units of the Arab Legion attack during their withdrawal from the country. The operation commander, Abdullah As, has 2 infantry companies, a dozen armored vehicles and a mortar battery of 3 inches. His forces are also aided by several hundred local irregulars .

The reasons given are the protection of one of the last convoys that would benefit the Arab Legion before the embargo and should arrive by this route and another is that the block hinders the deployment of the Legion in the Hebron area which is a goal of Abdallah . The latter would also pre-invasion increase his prestige among the Palestinian population .

The outer defenses fell quickly. Haganah has no weapon to meet the cannons and mortars of the Arab Legion. On May 13 , the main kibbutz was captured. Of the 131 defenders, 127 including 21 women are killed in the fighting or massacred after surrendering. The other 3 locations, meantime go on and the assembly is then looted and razed ^, .

The events of Kfar Etzion show the limits of the policy prohibiting any discharge. If it is effective in cases of civil war and against armed groups, isolated Jewish settlements can not withstand the firepower of a regular army and an evacuation would have prevented the death or captivity to the defenders .

According to Yoav Gelber , the fall and the massacre of Kfar Eztion also influence the decision of David Ben Gurion to launch the offensive in Jerusalem when he was initially reluctant, fearing the reactions in the Christian world .

The battle for Jerusalem has begun.

Operation Kilshon (May 13 to May 18)

Bevingrad. Center of the British security zone in Jerusalem

In Jerusalem, the British have several strategic buildings including a safety zone, called Bevingrad at its center. It includes the radio station, telephone exchange, the government hospital, barracks and the hostelry of Notre Dame, which dominates the whole city .

The first objective of Operation Kilshon is to take control of this strategic area during the British withdrawal. The second is in the wake of forming a continuous front between the various Jewish communities isolated. For that, David Shealtiel mobilized 400 men of the Haganah militia and 600 extra. Emil Ghuri, the new leader of the Jaysh al-Jihad al-Muqaddas also planned to take these neighborhoods and 600 men mobilized for the mission but did not prepare any transaction .

With the complicity of British men of the Haganah had obtained the exact time of the evacuation. On May 15 at 4 pm, they take one after the other buildings, according to the British evacuation of a few minutes and taking the Arab forces unprepared for the first phase of the operation .

The rest goes equally well for the Jewish troops. Arab forces prove unable to oppose any resistance. In the north, Jewish forces seized Sheikh Jarrah, liaise with the Mount Scopus and take the neighborhoods of the American colony. To the south, they provide the connection between the German Colony, the Greek colony, Talpiot and Ramat Rahel via taking the Allenby Barracks. A unit of the Palmach even resumed contact with the Jewish Quarter of the Old City through Zion Gate .

Given the situation, the Arab irregulars are powerless and give in to panic, calling it "desperate" to Arab Legion and announcing the imminent fall of the city .

Operation'Ami Ben (May 13 to May 22)

Theater Operations

As part of Plan Dalet, Yigal Yadin has provided a breakthrough in the western Galilee, where many isolated Jewish settlements. Beyond Acre and to the Lebanese border, this area is however in part attributed to the Arabs by the Partition Plan and the planned route for the entry of Lebanese forces in Palestine .

The command was entrusted to Moshe Caramel at the head of the brigade Carmeli. It divides the operation into 2 phases. The first stage began on May 13 evening with advanced along the coast of a column of armored vehicles and trucks of the Haganah, which meets with no resistance. The forces of the Arab Liberation Army present in the area retreated without fighting, and the operation ends with the taking of Acre on May 18. In a second phase, from 19 to 22 May , the forces of the 21st battalion conducting a breakthrough until Yehi'am kibbutz on the Lebanese border. Many Arab villages are conquered and destroyed in the wake .

Palestinian Exodus

Palestinian refugees on the roads of exodus

Over the whole of the second phase, the various offensives of Haganah were accompanied by a mass exodus of between 250,000 and 300,000 Arab refugees, which he did not forget to add the 100, 000 of the first wave. This is generally all that they are referring when we talk about the Palestinian exodus of 1948 , but it is not finished. These two waves were also the most publicized and widely reported in the media of the time .

The causes of this exodus and responsibilities are a controversial topic among commentators and even conflict between historians of the period. Among the various possible causes, Israeli historiography has long said they had fled following the instructions of the Arab authorities. Today two main competing theories: For some, like Ilan Pappe , they fled through a policy of planned deportation which was organized by the authorities of the Yishuv and implemented by the Haganah. Most historians acknowledge the existence of expulsions are decided locally but in the event the cumulative effect of all the consequences of a civil war of this magnitude.

These events and the controversy are detailed in the article about the Palestinian exodus.

Preparations of the Arab League (February-May 1948)

At the last meeting of the Arab League in February , Arab leaders put their belief in the ability for the Arab Liberation Army to assist the Palestinians and to the international community to renounce partition plan . At the top of Cairo from April 10 , the situation has changed markedly, with the death Abdel Kader al-Husseini and the debacle of Mishmar Ha'emek.

Again, Ismail Safwat calls for the immediate dispatch of Arab armies at the borders of Palestine and the need to move from a policy of limited raids on major operations and for the first time, Arab leaders will discuss the possibility of their involvement in Palestine .

The Syria and Lebanon say they are ready to intervene immediately, but the King Abdullah denied that the forces of the Arab Legion at this time present openly intervene in Palestine for the Palestinians, which irritates the Secretary General of the League, Azzam Pasha who declares Abdullah does not dictate where the British surrender. Abdullah is nevertheless ready to send the Legion assist the Palestinians after May 15. In response, Syria insists that the Egyptian army is also involved and despite the opposition of his Prime Minister, Farouk responds positively to the Syrian demand but more to counter the hegemonic Jordan for assistance to Palestinians .

Later, after visiting several Palestinian dignitaries Amman , and despite the opposition of the Mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini and Syria , Azzam Pasha accepted the proposal and sends Abdallah Ismail Safwat to Amman to organize coordination between the Arab Liberation Army and the Legion. It was decided that the Operations Command will devolve to Abdullah and the Iraqis will deploy a brigade in Transjordan to prepare the intervention of May 15. Abdullah would have a free hand in Palestine .

On April 26 , he officially announced in parliament Transjordanian "its intention to occupy Palestine" and "calls on Jews to place themselves under its jurisdiction. It also promises to protect their lives. Yishuv sees this announcement as a declaration of war and encourages Westerners through diplomatic channels to pressure the king to prevent the intervention .

On April 30 , Egyptians, Jordanians and Iraqis are fighting command. The King Abdullah received the honorary title of Commander in Chief and the Iraqi general Nur al-Din Mahmud the title of chief of staff but agreed that each army would act independently on its area of operations .

On May 4 , the Iraqi expeditionary force arrives in Mafraq. It comprises a tank regiment, a regiment of mechanized infantry and 24 artillery pieces, for a total of 1500 men . The Syrians could not assemble a superior force. For their part, Egyptians have collected two brigades, about 7,000 men in Sinai .

Only the May 8 as the Foreign Office has some of the Arab invasion, although the May 10 , the Lebanese announced they would not participate in military operations. While the British officers who study the situation consider the Arab armies, with the exception of the Arab Legion , as not being prepared for upcoming fights , the Egyptian officers believe that their advance would be "a parade without the safer and that their army will be in Tel Aviv in two weeks. " The readiness of the army is such that according to Lapierre and Collins, they do not even have maps of Palestine . At that time, the final plans of invasion are not yet established and British diplomats are trying unsuccessfully to back the Arab leaders on their decision .

On 15 May 1948 , the Arab League justify armed intervention in Palestine to ensure the security and the right to self-determination of the population while qu'Azzam Pasha in Cairo said: "This war is a war of extermination and a great massacre, which will be discussed as those committed by the Mongols and the Crusaders ". On May 13 , Safwat Ismail has resigned amid general indifference .

Summary

Areas under the control of Jewish forces on the eve of the intervention of Arab armies and hence fled or were driven most of the Palestinian population

Immediately after the vote on partition plan to the UN , the explosions of joy in the Jewish community are counterbalanced by the expression of discontent within the Arab community. Soon, violence erupts and is growing: the attacks, reprisal and retaliation against, leaving dozens of victims succeed without anyone manages to control them.

Over the period of December 1947 and January 1948 , there are nearly 1,000 dead and 2,000 injured . Late March , a report indicates that over 2,000 dead and 4,000 wounded . These figures are an average of more than 100 deaths and 200 injuries every week. And this, from a total of 2 million inhabitants.

From January , under the indifferent eye of the British authorities, the operations take a turn for the military with the entry into Palestine of several regiments of the Arab Liberation Army who are divided into various coastal cities and strengthen the Galilee and Samaria . Abd al-Kader al-Husseini also arrives in Egypt at the head of several hundred men of the Jaysh al-Jihad al-Muqaddas and having recruited several thousand others organized the blockade of 100 000 Jews of Jerusalem . The authorities of the Yishuv trying to resupply convoys through the city for up to a hundred armored vehicles to force the dams but the operation is becoming increasingly impractical and costly in lives. In March , the tactic paid off. Almost all vehicles in the Haganah were destroyed, several hundred fighters were killed and the blockade is operating . The situation is even more critical that the Jewish settlements in northern Galilee and the Negev are isolated. While the Jewish population had received strict instructions requiring him to keep at all costs on all fronts , the Arab population is most affected in the security situation facing the country. During those months, nearly 100,000 Palestinians, mainly the upper classes, are leaving their homes to seek refuge in a safe place abroad or in Samaria .

This pushes the U.S. to reconsider their support for the Partition Plan, but reassure the Arab League with the mistaken analysis of the ability of Palestinians , backed by the Arab Liberation Army , to prevent sharing. For their part, 7 February 1948 , the British finally opt for the option to support annexation of the Arab part of Palestine by Transjordan .

Even if some doubt settles in the Yishuv , the defeats are more apparent due to a wait of Haganah as a real weakness. David Ben Gurion reorganized the Haganah and made mandatory conscription. All men and women of the country receiving military training. Using funds collected by Golda Meyerson to U.S. and later to support the Zionist cause by Stalin , the Jewish representatives were able to sign contracts very important weapons in Eastern Europe. Other agents have recovered from stocks of the Second World War enough to equip the army with the Yishuv needed. Operation Balak enables the delivery of the first weapons and equipment at the end of March. David Ben Gurion also told Yigal Yadin, the task of studying a military plan to prepare the Yishuv to the intervention of Arab states announced. This is the plan Daleth is implemented early in the month of April.

In April, the war is entering a second phase with the passage of the Haganah on the offensive.

The first-named Operation Nahshon, is to lift the blockade of Jerusalem. Givati brigade of 1,500 men of the Haganah and Harel of the Palmach were able to free the road from April 5 to 20. Commodities shipped offer two months of relief to the Jewish population of Jerusalem . The success was double the death of Palestinian leader a href = "Abdel_Kader_al-Husseini" class = "mw-redirect" title = "Abdel Kader al-Husseini"> Abdel Kader al-Husseini in the fighting. During these events, April 9 , troops of the Irgun and Lehi perpetrate a massacre at Deir Yassin , which has a significant impact on the Palestinian population.

At the same time, the first major operation of the Arab Liberation Army ended in a debacle at Mishmar Ha'emek

As part of achieving territorial continuity provided by Plan Dalet , the forces of the Haganah , the Palmach and the Irgun set off in conquest of mixed communities. Palestinian society is collapsing. Tiberias, Haifa, Safed, Beisan, Jaffa and Acre fell, throwing on the roads of the exodus of more than 250,000 Palestinians .

The British have now essentially completed their withdrawal. The situation pushed the leaders of neighboring Arab countries to intervene but their preparation is not developed and they could not rally the forces that could tip the balance. Most Palestinian hopes lie in the Arab Legion of Transjordan's King Abdullah but it aims to annex territory to a maximum of Mandatory Palestine and plays both ways, being in contact also with the Jewish authorities.

In preparation for the offensive, Haganah successfully launched Operations Yiftach and Ben-'Ami to secure the settlements in Galilee and Operation Kilshon ^, to ensure a continuous front in the Jerusalem area. The meeting on May 10 between Golda Meir and Abdullah followed by the capture and massacre of Kfar Etzion on May 13 by the Arab Legion provide that leave the battle for Jerusalem will no thank you.

On 14 May 1948 , David Ben Gurion proclaimed the independence of the State of Israel and the Palestine war entered a second phase with the entry into the war Arab countries.

Notes

References

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