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Christological Controversies

Christology is the discipline of theology dogmatic Christian who studies the person and the words of Jesus Christ. It starts including changing names given to Jesus of Nazareth , as Christ , Lord, Son of God, Messiah. Therefore, Christology is on Christ, its nature and its doctrine.

His influence is reflected in all areas of Christian Theology : Creation, the sin , the transcendent , the soteriology (doctrine of salvation, studied among others by Walter Kasper ). No Christian theology does the economy of the reflection on the person of Christ, its function, its meaning and identity. Finally, the theme of the Resurrection becoming increasingly important in modern times Honors

Jesus of history and Christ of faith

The distinction was made between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith. In the first case, if one refers to "Jesus", we speak of Jesus of Nazareth , a man entered in a time and territory, we think we can know through various literary sources. In the second case, when one speaks of "Christ", it evokes the Jesus of the Christian faith, as "Christ the Lord", that is to say Jesus Christ. The word "Christ" means anointed, the chosen of God. , Christos in Greek, means "rendering", "anointed" and "who has been anointed" and refers to " Messiah ", transliteration word of Hebrew , mashiah.

Christology high and low Christology

It has sometimes differentiated high Christology (or above) and the low Christology (or down), depending on the starting point of the exhibition of faith is the Word incarnate , or the actions of Jesus Christ reported by the Gospels.

The Protestant theologian Raphael Picon proposes the distinction for his "Christology ontological / Christology empirical , it seems preferable in that it involves no value judgments.

The childhoods of Christianity

The old church is conventionally defined as "the childhoods of Christianity" in the words of Andre Trocme , that is to say, before the establishment of a Christian state whose "president" would be the Emperor of Constantinople .

Previously, the Christological debate is the rule, including the four gospels and Paul of Tarsus , as shown Boismard .

No centrality of regulation may exist then. Each bishop is master at home (especially in large communities of Christians like that of Egypt which Arius was born) but dependent on a Metropolitan which will be introduced in 325, in imitation of the Egyptian situation, the single "Church" with 100 bishops. The regional council is a habit as shown by a previous council meeting in Anatolia at the instigation of Eusebius of Caesarea to 322 .

The problem of the one God and Philosophy

The argument that the elements of this dogma as irrational, must be tempered by the consideration that they are developed in a different rationality that rationality Cartesian. The dogmatic formulation was made in the tools of philosophy neo-Aristotelian. In particular, some theologians have nothing against the concept of nature (physis), but were critical of the substance (ousia), because the word is not used in the Bible of the Septuagint.

The idea of one God is a value that is pervasively present at the time of development of early Christianity . Thus, in Plotinus , the One unspeakable, supreme principle, is beyond Being and the Being behind all at once. Then comes the Being itself, whose first degree is the intellect - or the Spirit in Greek (us) - and last order before the matter of reality, the Universal Soul. With subsequent Neoplatonists, the system becomes more complex: there is a proliferation of ontological hypostasis. Iamblichus , for example, placed below the gods A, then the archangels and angels, then the demons, then the hero, hierarchy - etymologically: "government of saints" - found later in the hierarchy angelology of Pseudo-Dionysius. Proclus , for its part, introduced a series of subdivisions among the gods .

The works of Plotinus were edited by his disciple Porphyry of Tyre , a Phoenician. The latter assigns titles to various treaties and directs Plotinus Enneads. The Treaty 10, the chronological order given by Porphyry, corresponds to the Ennead V, 1, and carries the title: Of the three "hypostasis" which ranks as a principle. The word "hypostasis" is a Greek term to designate various levels of ontological system Neoplatonic. This term does not appear in Plotinus but flourished in Athanasius of Alexandria in the development of the trinity. Its use in this context introduces a question: "Can we say that the One is a hypostasis, since reality is being, and that the One is beyond being and therefore of reality, it seems difficult to make an order of reality? "

There is therefore a fairly radical shift in meaning between hypostasis in school Alexandrine Neoplatonism and hypostasis as the Christians of the Alexandrine school use. Version of Arius seems closest to the version read by Plotinus Porphyry , given its system subordination , the very man who led some of her contemporaries to accuse di-theism. Consider that the Neoplatonists hypostases are tight: there is communication between different ontological orders, but such orders are distinct. The Incarnation therefore poses problems for Neoplatonists since it is defined as the interpenetration of two worlds, heaven and earth, divinity and humanity. For a Platonist, everything must remain in its place: a god is no place in our world, but as the symbol. This means that if God appears, not himself, as he is in himself, who appears to him but as it turns out, so it takes many forms increasingly coarse, less and less divine. The One can not come down here. However, there may be symbols or messenger of the gods. The divine impulse down to cross all hypostases; during this trip and thereby altered. So for a neo-Platonic God in heaven can not be the same God here on earth.

If "hypostasis" is a term used to speak of three persons of the Christian Trinity , we must remember that the idea of triad is present in Platonic - including the influence of the Chaldean Oracles. It is likely that this idea ale been a Christian interpretation , .

From the three Alexandrian hypostasis of the Trinity - the absolute unity begets intelligence, intelligence in turn creates the soul and all three are one God - the Christian interpretation built a trinity whose three hypostasis are equal ontologically and they interpenetrate . They are also distinct, which raises philosophical problems among opponents. However, on this last point, we must also remember that the hypostasis (Greek) as the person (Latin: persona) also refer to the mask covered by the ancient theater actor, to serve its role. Therefore, we better understand the dissenting interpretations such as modalism.

The historical debate

It was long thought of Rudolf Bultmann to Adela Yarbro Collins that the development of the Trinity came the irruption of the "Gentile Christians" in Christianity starting address "Judeo-Christians. School Anglo-Saxon reformulates the question in two ways:

  • means or neo-Platonism was facing the Alexandrian Judaism but was one which largely explains the ideas of Origen
  • in Philo of Alexandria , a Jewish Binitarianism appears in the guise of "word of God" (o theou logos Philo sometimes called "Son of God," for example in De agricultura 51) or in the Memra the Talmud which we could find an echo in the prologue of John.
  • This Memra has frequently a place among the angels as found in Justin Martyr.
  • The idea of "two powers in heaven" is also known as the heresy of Rabbi Akiva

In this context, both the Christology of Arius (who launched the conciliar debate) than that of Athanasius closes but also Christologies angelology more specific such as Jehovah's Witnesses or those of Islam, immersed in the same source

Christology ante-Nicene

Main article: ancient Christianity.

The Council of Nicaea is primarily a court for Arius to try and put it in front of his opponents. It is this trial that opened with great part of the process dogmatization.

Christological debate is not confined to elite and can feed considerable controversy among the humblest individuals : a sermon by Gregory of Nyssa his followers to Constantinople in the late fourth century , attests despite and against the incipient dogmatization: "In this city, if you ask for money to a shopkeeper, he will soon play with you the question whether the Son is created or uncreated . If you ask the baker about the quality of his bread, he will say that "the Father is greater than the Son" and if you ask the boy to his office bathroom, you affirm that the Son was created ex scratch , . "

Number of Christologies have developed into the I. and IV century , as evidenced by a host of apocryphal published at that time . Before 70 or even 135, Christianity must be considered entirely as a form of Judaism that it will gradually get out and differentiate . The debate between various schools of thought, which sometimes compete and s'excommunient , there is the rule, as reflected in the Talmud that sees the beginning of the writing down of the Mishnah in this period.

The main issue asked in these Christologies the modalities of the divine authorship of which Jesus speaks citing his "Father in heaven." One meditates "who sees me sees my father" trying to establish the conditions under which that phenomenon would be possible. They fall into three categories depending on how the elements of authorship are included: the Christologies angelology the Christologies differentialist and finally those who believe that Christ is a man chosen by God.

We must remember that "Christ" is the Greek translation of the word Messiah after the hope of restoring the monarchy (independent) of Israel as the ideal set by the figure of David in the first testament . In this configuration, the various metaphysical establish a delicate balance between the concept of daimon , the concept of royalty - now understood as sovereignty , sometimes as authority - and the humanity of Jesus.

Christology angelology

In this configuration, the dominant spiritual nature and human nature disappears. Christ Jesus, therefore, is an intermediary between God and men, a "messenger" sometimes conceived as an angel. There is a direct link between this concept and the Memra the Talmud that is a "great Angel"

The incarnation is not seen as the act of sharing common humanity, that of a man born of a woman ( Paul of Tarsus ), but as an appearance of humanity embodied in a heavenly flesh. This is the basis of Christologies Docetists.

This particular configuration is that of Gnosticism , the religious current first century which adds a dualism inherited from Mani. The Father is unknowable, the Son gives an idea of men and is the Heavenly Savior. This Christology is known by the Gnostic Basilides who preaches between 117 and 161 in Alexandria. In this stream, we note the Apollinarianism developed by Apollinaris of Laodicea (315-392) makes a Great Angel of Christ, that is to say a strict emanation of God the Father. The Valentinism the fifth century is the result of this current.

Posterity

This doctrine will be released in the fifth century , the Monophysite Christology is the Coptic Apostolic of Egypt.

It is also conceivable that Christology has its share in the figure of Christ Pantocrator made popular in Eastern Christianity by the icon of the name.

This Christological perspective, that of Apollinaire, is similar to that of Jehovah's Witnesses who make Jesus the Archangel Michael . To some extent, it also Christology in the common conception Sunni , with the proviso that the angel in theology Muslim is quite different and that the envoy was described as a prophet. Added to the doctrine of the fading that Jesus was not crucified but disappears, and another man was substituted , as in Docetists.

Christology differentialist

Main article: Arianism.

Christ, that is to say Jesus is inferior to God but is involved: the theology of Arius , which Judge equality between the Son and the Father is incompatible with monotheism. He asserted the absolute transcendence of the Father but he acknowledges a similarity (in Greek: homoios giving homoiousiens ).

Posterity

This formula is imposed by the Emperor Arian Constantius , son and successor of Constantine.

Aetius of Antioch , a deacon in 357 , at the time of Bishop George of Alexandria, is developing a more advanced theory in a synthesis of 47 proposals, the syntagmion. It's unbegotten characteristic of divine transcendence. It follows that, in terms of gasoline, the Son and the Father can not maintain any resemblance. Father and Son are so dissimilar (Greek: anomios) and his followers called " anomens.

He was nicknamed the "atheist", and denounced knows successive exiles in 358 and 360. Pardoned by the Emperor Julian , he returned to Constantinople and found Eunomius his disciple. He died there in 366.

Eunomius of Cyzicus , in Cappadocia , a disciple and secretary of Aetius, known only by the writings of his opponent Basil of Caesarea. He developed and systematized all the doctrines of Aetius in his Apology. It uses the syllogism of Aristotle and categories with high accuracy which reflects a philosophical education. He is a deacon in 358 and became bishop of Cyzicus. Eunomius died in 394.

Basil of Caesarea and Gregory of Nyssa have each written a Counter Eunomius. This controversy will continue long after the death of both his technical Eunomius reasoning impressed. It can be seen as the source of the Unitarian Christian.

Christ is a man chosen by God

These Christologies defend a strict monotheism.

Monarchianism

Monarchianism is native to Asia Minor , before the appearance of the Logos theology, is at first a reaction against the common Gnostic Christianity in the mid- second century . Monarchianism is the divine design of most of the Christians of that time .

The Monarchianism exalts the divine monarchy and strict monotheism, blurring the distinction between the Persons , according to the idea that man and God can not have anything in common but they can relate more or less relatives.

Adoptionist or dynamic Monarchianism

The Adoptionist meditate on the Son of God through the filter of this verse from Psalm 22: "it is my beloved son," cited by John in the narrative of non-baptism of Jesus. Psalm 22 is "the coronation psalm" and refers directly to the liturgy of the anointing of the kings of Israel.

Adoptionist for Christ is a divine man, the son "adopted" by God . This Christology is''a form of Unitarianism with which it shares the opposition to the theology of the Logos. Among its supporters are, in particular Paul of Samosata in the second half of the third century .

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The indistinctness of persons, take the idea that the Father (patris) who would have experienced pain (passus) on the cross . Depending on Patripassian , the Son is a theophany of the Father and is therefore not a separate person but this theophany is embodied in a man.

A variation develops in the third century: the Sabellianism , named after the theologian who developed it to Rome , Sabellius. According to him, Father, Son and Spirit are one and the same person who gradually becomes evident in these three aspects .

In his posterity is the majority understanding of the trinity in the Churches of Leuenberg.

Main article: Unitarianism (theology).

Origen

Main article: Origen.

According to Origen, the soul of Christ existed before his birth and it is through this spirit that unites the divine logos designed to flesh through Mary. This view is directly derived from christological Binitarianism Philo mentioned above.

While a council of Antioch condemns this idea in Alexandria 268 , we find this idea in Nestor distinguishes the human part of the country deified Jesus.

Montana

Montana is a doctrine that takes its name from Montanus or Phrygian Montanus , a Phrygian charismatic who began his ministry in the second half of the second century.

Christology of Montanus is related to the formation of the Canon of the New Testament, and discussions regarding this development takes place between Eastern and Western theologians. Most Orientals are against the inclusion of the Johannine corpus (Gospel, Epistles and Apocalypse) that seem too new to be authentic. The Montanists even refuse the logos theology of Jesus hence the name "alogiens" given to them.

Regarding the Paraclete whose arrival is announced in John 15:26 , Montanus said it is this consolation.

Posterity

The neo- Salafism , current fundamentalist-cultured of Islam is developing the same doctrine affirming that Muhammad is the Paraclete promised.

Judeo-Christian

The term "Judeo-Christian" here refers to groups of Christians of Jewish origin who have emerged from the late first century , who believe in the Messiahship of Jesus of Nazareth - while respecting the Torah . The origin, history and posterity of these communities - which are known primarily by doctrinal sources hostile - are still being debated .

In a tradition recorded by Eusebius of Caesarea , the Jerusalem community of disciples of Jesus of Nazareth would have moved to Pella to 66 at the time of the Judean revolt which led to the fall of the Temple in 70 . From this original community that might be different from current Judeo-Christian, with practices and doctrines like plus some unique features of their own.

Nazarene or Nazoreans

This is the name given to the Jews of Jerusalem who first recognized the Messiah in Jesus of Nazareth , then to their successors beyond the holy city of Judaism. They are the first known Christian community, that is to say a current Jewish messianic. It was directed first by Pierre until 44 and then by Jacques , brother of the Lord, until 62 . James Tabor makes up this group to those who followed Jacques, Lord's brother and successor at the head of Jesus followers rather than Peter. They are therefore, in this case, the legitimate bearers of the message of Jesus. Besides being poor, as were the Pharisees of Jesus' time, they practice all the rites of Judaism of their time .

The Nazarenes recognize the Messiah in Jesus of Nazareth , both believe in his humanity than his divinity and proclaim that Jesus Christ is the Servant of God, what distinguishes Judaism . James Tabor, they recognize Jesus as Messiah, he considered a prophet . After a few centuries, the Christology of the Nazarene community does not seem fundamentally different from the orthodoxy, apart from a few archaisms back to the earliest communities. Marginalized communities of Greek origin from the second century , the Nazoreans seem to melt into the Great Church after the fifth century .

However, there is no consensus on the identity of the doctrines professed by those early messianic community and an orthodoxy that is gradually and later finalized, could thus hardly be used as a standard . Marie-Emile Boismard sets in a variety of reasons : the concern of these schools of thought is rather a reason to metaphysics and to construct a theology to establish articles of faith immutable.

The concept of confession of faith is emerging not only Niceen council of 325 . Furthermore, the divine status of the Holy Spirit is defined at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Then follow Jesus is to focus on a person depending on the model of disciples following a master Pharisee and not think of immutable truths. Finally, in his Christology of Paul , Boismard highlights the various meanings of the word god which means sometimes the only God of the Bible, sometimes the Spirit, actor inspiration.

The Ebionites and elkasates are expected from this initial current they constitute dissent . Some authors believe that the Ebionites (or poor) and the Nazarenes are the same group.

Ebionites

For Hyam Maccoby, a trend researcher willing controversy , the Ebionites are not Nazarenes. Maccoby accentuates the contrast between the Pauline Christian movement, according to his Gentile Christian and the Ebionites, only heirs of Jesus' message. They will be declared heretical by the Elders of Yabnah

Elkasates

This is a group of Baptist II century often included in the Judeo-Christianity at the time of the second temple. They recognize that Jesus re-opens the period of prophecy. As the sages said Yabnah had closed the period of prophecy, they were excommunicated by these sages. They were founded by a prophet, Elkas , who receives a revelation in a book fallen from heaven, "according to the story of Origen. It is the largest Baptist Jewish sect at the time

The elkasates are a Judeo-Christian, the Trinity contestaire widespread in Arabia. One thinks of Paul's journey into Arabia after his stay in Damascus. Very attached to the practices of Judaism, they held water sacred, and possibly even divine and practiced a great quantity of ablution unknown even of Rabbinic Judaism

Posterity

Simon Claude Mimouni and Paul Andre think that Mani the prophet of Manichaeism came from a group elkasate. Moreover, if we consider the hypothesis douard-Marie Gall on the origins of Islam, as presented in his thesis , one may wonder if the uncle of the Prophet of Islam n was not one of those elkasates .

The development dogmatic

The dogmatic formulation is equivalent to the establishment of an orthodoxy that does not exist before, as shown in the theological conflict between the school of Alexandria and that of Antioch .

From Nicaea to Chalcedon I

Early Ecumenical Councils

The question of the origins of Christianity is inherently problematic, as it refers to the dogma of any particular church or at the various schools of historians , Jesus Christ is regarded as the one Saviour . However, if the consciousness of this reality is no doubt, the wording is not without hesitation. The Fathers of the Church , so their thinking based on the texts of the Bible, regarded as a coherent whole whose parts are complementary . For several centuries, the alternation of opinions and doctrines led theologians to define with precision finer the doctrine of the Church.

This is reflected in the first five ecumenical councils , from the First Council of Nicaea ( 325 ) to that of Chalcedon ( 451 ), included the " Robbery of Ephesus , "that is to say a second Council of Ephesus ( 449 ). If it is not recognized by the Church of Rome (minority at the time, that is to say at the time Pentarchy ), his refusal is that it was not invited , the four churches of the East felt that they were the best of theological thought.

It is not among the first seven ecumenical councils as understood by Western Christianity but it is difficult to exclude since his Christology is that of the Armenian Apostolic Church and that of the Maronite Church before its meeting in the Roman Catholic Church during the First Crusade .

The interest of the Christology of the 2nd Council of Ephesus lies in its attempts to resolve the issue of dual nature, sketched by Nestor. How can one be both a "divine nature" and a "human nature"? The monothelitism of Eutyches , sometimes also called mononergisme solves the issue by stating that a single human nature "will" of God is substituted for the person. However, it is on the definitions of the Council of Chalcedon that blend today's major Christian communities.

Much of the debate concerns the nature of Jesus Christ, and later on the Christian Trinity. These two reflections are separated from each other in the Christian tradition majority of the time as shown in the Christology of the two churches and three councils .

Doctrine Development (325-451)

In 325 , the First Council of Nicaea convened by Constantine I , answered the question "What is the relationship between Jesus and his Father in heaven? Under the influence of Athanasius , the question becomes: "Christ Is consubstantial to God? The council, meeting to try Arius , because of its theological conflict with his bishop Alexander , rejected his theory that sees Jesus Christ as thousands called , a being of inferior to God the Father. The council says the dual nature of Christ and prepare a first Athanasius creed that will not be accepted without difficulty .

The First Council of Constantinople , a manuscript illumination of Byzantine ninth century

In 381 , the First Council of Constantinople , convened by Theodosius I , condemned the doctrine of pneumatomaques who denies the divinity of the Holy Spirit. The Council reaffirms the divinity of Christ, says the Holy Spirit and complete the drafting of the Nicene Creed , called "Nicene-Constantinople". While God, Jesus Christ is man, consubstantial with every human being. The council is opposed to the theses of Apollinaris of Laodicea. The Nicene Creed proclaims that the Son is "the same nature as the Father", he "took flesh and became man." Gregory of Nyssa has an important influence on the council.

In 431 , the Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorius , Archbishop of Constantinople. The latter, fearing confusion between the man Jesus and the divine Logos, taught that the Virgin Mary had given birth to a human inextricably linked to the divine Logos. Nestorius spoke of "two persons" who "represented" Christ. Instead, the Council of Ephesus affirmed the unity of Christ from his conception and calls his mother "Mother of God" (Mother of Him who is God in nature). Man and God, Christ is yet one, and can not be divided. Cyril of Alexandria played a prominent role in this doctrine.

In 451 , the Council of Chalcedon that Christ is clear, however "two", both man and God, without confusion or absorption. By the same token, the Council of Chalcedon rejected the Monophysite ("one nature") of Eutyches. It means therefore an essential step in Christology, claiming (as a result of Nicaea I and Constantinople I) the divinity of Christ but affirming his humanity (against those who assumed absorbed by his divine nature), and unity of person (after Ephesus).

In this regard, the symbol of Chalcedon stresses the dual nature of Christ and its unity ("one person and one hypostasis "):

"We confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in divinity and perfect in the same humanity, the same truly God and truly man composed of soul and body, consubstantial with the Father according divinity and consubstantial with us, except sin, before the worlds created by the Father as to his divinity, and generated the same days for us and for our salvation from the Virgin Mary, Mother of God in humanity; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, acknowledged in two natures, without confusion, without change, without division and without separation, the difference of the natures being by no means removed because of the union property one and the other being rather preserved and concurring in one person and one hypostasis, Christ did not splitting or dividing into two, but one and the same Son, only begotten, God the Word, Lord Jesus Christ. "

Theology and Christologies the Fathers of the Church

From the Middle Ages to the Reformation

Thomas Aquinas

Main article: Thomas Aquinas.
  • ontological trinity to follow
  • Trinity economical approach

Other medieval theologians

Catholic theology of the sixteenth tonineteenth century

Christology and contemporary

1. By "modern" means the various arguments put forward is to say Christologies from the Reformation , in that the Renaissance inaugurated the historical period traditionally called modern era. This revival is due to the arrival of Greek manuscripts in the luggage of exiles from Constantinople, newly conquered by Muslims.

2. A major turning point of Christology is due to the Protestant philosopher Hermann Samuel Reimarus (1694-1768), which marks the beginning of the exegesis and historical criticism with its fragments Wolfbuttel .

According to his analysis, two representations of Jesus are visible in the New Testament. Reimarus observes that the New Testament is developing two systems. On the one hand, the synoptic Gospels show Jesus a prophet, teacher moral, spiritual referent. On the other hand, Paul and John speak of a Son of God who came down from heaven, who suffered, who died and rose again and ascended into heaven.

Reimarus retains only the first system, holding that the latter is absurd. He no longer posed the question of whether these writings were meant to be together and to be read as complementing each other.

3. By "contemporary Christology" refers to Christologies from the historical-critical exegesis as it unfolds in the nineteenth century.

The theologians of the nineteenth century considering the stream of "high Christology" as the oldest, therefore the most genuine, this assumption hermeneutics worth discussing (the oldest is the most authentic "). They did not mind, for some of them to adopt the symbol of Chalcedon. Karl Barth is one of the most important representatives in the twentieth century the "high Christology". The other stream, that of the Protestant theological liberal , often Unitarian , from the scriptural elements highlighted by Reimarus, stick to the prophet Jesus. This power is represented by Adolf von Harnack , then by Rudolf Bultmann , both from the traditional Lutheran. We can oppose an "ontological Christology" to an "empirical Christology."

Among the trends that continue today this exploration include a multidisciplinary and inter-school characterized by the name of the conference which has gathered: The Ways That Never share, represented by Daniel Boyarin , Paula Fredriksen and which we find the echo in some work of the Ecole Biblique in Jerusalem , in particular Stephen Nodet when he revisits the Griesbach hypothesis or Marie-mile Boismard in his book At the dawn of Christianity, before the birth of dogma, it s Relying on the theory of two sources. Among the questions raised: could it be that the Judaism of first century has seen the least common absolutely monotheistic we do represents today? This debate affects the way Paul is considered either as an apostle or as an apostate. The method interrogates texts and literary and archaeological evidence as to whether opportunities for reconciliation between human and divine attributes were possible to ensure that time to participate in the creation of the "high Christology".

Former perspective, the consensus among the various canonical texts of the New Testament was considered significant and differences counted for anecdotal. However, according to a more recent, is perceived as such documents will meet each other, reflecting the diversity of communities claiming the Jesus movement in the early centuries. Some differences may take on particular importance in that they are the place where lie the various understandings of the relationship between "Jesus" and "Christ."

The work of the Christian theologian is to understand these differences and to articulate them in a Christology. According to both the Christian and the theologian's own style, sometimes the focus will be on the unit, sometimes on diversity.

First Protestant Christologies

These are essentially Christologies Chalcedonian despite the protest of conservative Castellio and more assertive challenge of Michael Servetus.

  • Martin Luther
    • Marc Lienhard, at the heart of Luther's faith: Jesus Christ, Descle, 1991
  • John Calvin
    • Pierre Gisel, Christ Calvin Descle, 1990
  • Sebastian Castellon (1515-1563)
    • The art of doubt and belief and to ignore and knowledge. Treaty unpublished in his lifetime. First published in full: Jhber, 1953. "It is dangerous to comment on this. I also am careful to say anything. "
  • Michael Servetus (1511-1553)
    • Of Trinitatis Erroribus, 1531

Enlightenment Christology

Isaiah Gasc (1748-1813)

Geneva , he is one of the great forgotten story, but worth mentioning here. He belonged to the first flight of teachers from the Faculty of Protestant Theology Montauban , open decision Napoleon in 1809. His views on the Trinitarian dogma began very quickly into conflict with some of his colleagues and representatives of the orthodox Protestant.

"Long ago, he taught his students that theologians no longer in the public discussions on the Trinity. The wisest of them have finally understood that, because after fourteen or fifteen centuries of debate, there was no closer to agreement than is was when the dispute began, it was necessary that this doctrine was not clearly taught in Holy Scripture, and therefore it did not concern the salvation of Christians Jean-Jacques Chenevire Cato (1783-1871)
"Pastor and teacher in Geneva, he remained committed throughout his life to the idea that the biblical texts were provided with a more or less supernatural. So he did not understand in 1850 how much freedom Protestant review should also apply to the historical study of these texts. Protestant Christology of the twentieth century

Adolf von Harnack (1851-1930)

Adolph von Harnack, a historian of dogma and liberal Protestant theologian.

Alfred North Whitehead (1861-1947)

Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965)

Through the Gospels Synoptic, long thought to try to discover who Jesus was for his disciples during his lifetime. That's the whole question of the relationship between the Jesus of history and the Christ of faith.

  • According to The Quest of the Historical Jesus, A Critical Study of Progress icts from Reimarus to Wrede (1906) Albert Schweitzer, it is impossible to trace the historical figure of Jesus on earth.

Rudolph Bultmann (1884-1976)

Rudolph Bultmann's Christology distances itself chalcdonnienne Christology: it is the bridge between the neo-Chalcedonian theologians (such as Karl Barth ) and post-Chalcedonian Christologies.

  • His concept key: demythologization
  • Jesus (1926) Jesus, mythology and demythologization (1968)

Charles Harold Dodd (1884-1973)

  • The Founder of Christianity, 1972
  • According to the Scriptures / The infrastructure of the theology of the New Testament, 1968
  • The parables of the kingdom of God / Already there or not?, 1977

Paul Tillich (1886-1965)

  • His concept: "Jesus Christ as thousands called"

In his collection of lectures delivered in 1950-1955, the God beyond God, Tillich uses it as a challenge to that, the magical effect of a hyphen, Christ could become part of a compound name, that is to say the element of identity. For Tillich, as for all Process theologians , Christ is to be a function, not an identity, much less a natural nor a substance in the sense intended by neo-Platonism from the merger of stoicism and of Platonism.

Joachim Jeremias (1900-1979)

  • New Testament Theology, Volume 1, The preaching of Jesus, Paris, Cerf, 1973
  • The Last Supper. The words of Jesus, Paris, Cerf, 1972
  • The unknown words of Jesus, Paris, Cerf, 1970
  • The historical problem of Jesus Christ, Paris, L'Epi, 1968
  • Abba, Jesus and His Father, Paris, Seuil, 1966
  • The central message of the New Testament, Paris, Cerf, 1966
  • Jesus' words. The Sermon on the Mount, the Our Father in current exegesis, Paris, Cerf, 1963
  • The parables of Jesus, Le Puy, Xavier Mappus, 1962

The quest of Jeremias is marked by the desire to go back, below the text, to the historical figure of Jesus, in which the believer finds God himself. It specifically seeks out ipsissima verba, words spoken by Christ himself. "The work of Jeremias appears as a quest for proximity to the first event, the first moment of the Christian faith: the preaching of Jesus of Nazareth. " Ksemann Ernst (1906-1998)

For Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965), The Quest of the Historical Jesus (1906), it seemed impossible to trace the historical figure of Jesus on earth.

According Ksemann Ernst (1906-1998), former student of Rudolf Bultmann but separating from his interpretations, it is possible to link the Christ of faith in Jesus of history. Three traits in Jesus should be noted by the theologian. The first is the leadership he demonstrated in religious matters, taking his freedom against the divine law and the authority of Moses. Her teaching is marked by the assurance that he knows what God wants. Then the disciples were struck by the closeness and intimacy between Jesus and God, which he called "Abba." Finally, Jesus announces the proximity of the Kingdom , presented at the beginning of the Gospels. It also uses the title "Son of Man", which occurs exclusively in the mouth of Jesus, no longer used by the early Christians, who appears in the book of Daniel as a character from history do. All this binds the person of Jesus to a future and a fulfillment of history.

See also articles Quest for the Historical Jesus and Jesus in contemporary exegesis.

John AT Robinson (1919-1983)

  • The human face of God 1973

John Hick (born 1922)

  • The metaphor of God Incarnate 1993

He considers that until Chalcedon Christian language containing the speeches of exaltation of Christ is purely liturgical and devotional. For him, the work of Chalcedon is less about creating a theology at the end of a debate than to alter the reception. Based on the promulgation of the dogma, understanding one is allowed, which is literal and verbal rather than the metaphorical discourse of love and pre-existing.

The dynamic interpretation ceases to 1500 years instead of developing theology of the Incarnation which began to emerge. No light on the possibility of dual nature is given or, in neo-Platonic philosophy, what it means for a person having two natures. Hick also criticized the wording that the body of Jesus was human but his spirit is divine because the choice of the word spirit does not seem more legitimate than the dichotomy body / spirit quite alien to biblical anthropology. It therefore emphasizes the aspect docete this formulation, because what would a man whose spirit is divine, if it is a non-human? We see reappear in the critique of Hick, who was an evangelical Christian, this passage from Genesis 6, where the children produced from the union of God's son and daughters of the men are dwarfs. Also, the literalism that do not seem viable, Hick metaphorical understanding between pre-conciliar if Jesus embodies his father, realizing that God's will, he becomes a symbol of his love for humanity. Instead of an ontological Christology, we have an existential Christology. Can be summarized (somewhat unfairly, anyway) his Christology in three different forms:

  • insofar as Jesus fulfills God's will, God acts through him on earth and therefore embodied in the person of Jesus,
  • insofar as Jesus fulfills God's will, we can say that he embodies a message of God to humanity,
  • insofar as Jesus lived a life of love and carried by the chariot, he embodies a love that reflects God's infinite love.

John B. Cobb (born 1925)

  • Christ in a Pluralistic Age 1995
  • Thomas made of doubt (Paris, Van Dieren Publisher , 1999) (subtitled: Contemporary Issues in Christology to discuss with family)
  • God and the world (Paris, Van Dieren Publisher , 2006)

Henrikus Berkhof

  • Christian Faith

Martin Hengel (b. 1926)

  • Jesus, Son of God, Paris, Cerf, 1975
  • The Crucifixion in antiquity and the madness of the message of the cross, Paris, Cerf, 1981

In its inaugural conference in Tbingen, Jesus, Son of God (published in an expanded edition in 1975), Martin Hengel examines the development of early Christian Christologies up the assertion of pre-existence , co-creation of the world the Son and the sending in the world. He wants to show the rapid development of the Christian concept of Jesus as Son of God and refutes the hypothesis of a Gnostic myth or a pagan syncretism chronologically earlier and thus pre-Christian .

In his monograph on The Crucifixion in antiquity and the Madness of the message of the Cross, Martin Hengel examines the status and role of the crucifixion in the Roman Empire, the shame associated with it, and observes that "the crucifixion was a case quite shocking, obscene in the original sense of the word. " In a second part, more theological, it analyzes the idea of atoning death - and its analogs among the Greeks and Romans. Hengel sees, with the announcement of the resurrection, the novelty of Christian preaching .

Jrgen Moltmann (born 1926)

  • The Crucified God, The Cross of Christ, the foundation and criticism of Christian theology, 1974 (gekreuzigte Der Gott, Das Kreuz Christi als Grund und Kritik Christlicher Theology, 1972)
  • Jesus, the Messiah of God, 1993 (Der Weg Jesus Christ, Christology in messianischen Dimensionen, 1989)

Wolfhart Pannenberg (born 1928)

  • Outline of a Christology, 1971

Opposing Rudolf Bultmann , Pannenberg wants to found his theology on history and not on "the Word" about Christ "real" and not on Christ "preached," he wants "based on the story of Jesus true knowledge of its meaning, which can be summarized by these words: God revealed himself in this man "(p. 24). It is a Christology "from below", which leaves the man Jesus, its history, rather than the dual nature of human-divine Jesus of the dogmatic tradition.

The intelligibility of the Christian faith depends Pannenberg capacity to account for the resurrection of Christ in human history. It presents the resurrection as historical and fully attainable by history, arguing that if the stories relating the resurrection of Christ had not been not historical, mythological and they are therefore not credible. Resurrection is "the principle or even ontological fundamental ontic Christology" (p. 132). For Pannenberg, the authority of pre-Easter Jesus is merely anticipatory (proleptic). However, we can already see a universal claim in the particularities of this sermon. "It all comes down really to the problem of the relationship between Jesus' claim and its confirmation by God. "(P. 72) This is the Resurrection, confirming this claim, which establishes the divinity of Jesus at the same time it is the final revelation .

Eberhard Jngel (b. 1938)

  • God, mystery of the world. Foundation of the theology of the Crucified in the debate between theism and atheism, Volumes I and II, 1983

Catholic Theology Today

John Henry Newman (1801-1890)

Opposing the Arianism and Unitarianism.

  • Twelve sermons on Christ, 1943, repr. 1995
  • The Arians of the fourth century, 1988
  • Jean Honore , Christological Thought Newman Descle Editions, coll. "Jesus Christ" No. 68, 1996

Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955)

  • The Omega Point

Karl Rahner (1904-1984)

  • Basic Treaty of Faith, 1983

Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905-1988)

  • The glory and the cross. Aesthetic aspects of Revelation, 1961-1969
  • The Divine Drama, 1973-1983

Jacques Guillet (1910-2001)

  • Jesus before his Life and Death, 1971
  • The Gospel of Jesus Christ according to the four Gospels, 1976
  • The Faith of Jesus Christ, 1980
  • Jesus in the faith of the disciples, 1995

In the work of Jacques Guillet is a dominant concern, that of exploring the mystery of Christ. Who was he? What was he aware of his fate? Among the titles given to it by the Gospels and St. Paul, which ones or what is that Jesus himself used to talk about himself and his mission?

Exegete the New Testament , Jacques Guillet was also a theologian as well as a "spiritual writer." If we talk about specialization, we can say that it was Christ, not just the "historical Jesus". His conviction was that Christ the Savior, Son of God and his gospel are for all, wise and ignorant, which made the author of many popular texts .

Louis Bouyer (1913-2004)

  • The eternal Son, 1974

Edward Schillebeeckx (1914-2009)

  • Christ, the sacrament of the encounter of God, 1961
  • Human experience and faith in Jesus Christ, 1981
  • The History of Men, an account of God, 1992

Moingt Joseph (b. 1915)

  • The man who came from God, 1993
  • God comes to man, I mourn From the unveiling of God, 2002
  • God comes to man, II-1, appearing on the birth of God - 1. Apparition, 2005
  • God comes to man, II-2, from the appearance on the birth of God - 2. Birth, 2007

Raimon Panikkar (b. 1918)

  • Christ and Hinduism, a hidden presence, 1972

Joseph Ratzinger ( Benedict XVI ) (born 1927)

  • Faith Christian yesterday and today, 1976
  • Jesus of Nazareth, 2007

In his very personal book Jesus of Nazareth, Benedict XVI (who do not speak as Pope) offers a kind of "meditation" theological (in dialogue, sometimes critical, with the German exegesis). The sighting of the book is to show the fundamental unity between the portrait of Jesus given by the synoptic gospels and that of the Gospel of John. The book puts particular value in the relationship between Jesus and his Father, intimate relationship without which his face is incomprehensible. The Gospel of John holds a special place in this meditation, rich with developments on some of the major themes of the Fourth Gospel: water, vine and wine, bread, Pastor.

In the concluding pages, we read: "We can see what is ultimately behind all these formulas imaged Jesus gives us" life "by what he gives us God. It can give us because he is himself one with God. Because he is the Son, He himself is the gift, it is "life." That is why it is, because of its very nature, communication "for existence." And that is what appears on the cross as its real excitement. "(P. 382) He concluded by relating the confession of faith of the Nicene Council with the occupation of Peter at Caesarea, and indicating that it reflects the unique novelty reported by the Gospels about Jesus' relationship to His Father.

Hans Kng (born 1928)

  • Being Christian, 1978

Walter Kasper (b. 1933)

  • Jesus Christ, 1976
  • The Christian God, 1985

Christology outside Europe

With the expansion of Christianity, often in conjunction with colonial conquest, indigenous peoples have appropriated theology and built autonomous Christologies

African Christology

This section is empty, insufficiently detailed or incomplete. Your help is welcome!

Indian Christology

This section is empty, insufficiently detailed or incomplete. Your help is welcome!

Non-Christian Christology

Jesus and / or Christ have a role in religions other than Christianity

Main article: Christology non-Christian.

References

  1. Origin of Christianity: From the Resurrection to the story of Jesus by Jean-Louis Souletie , journal Esprit & Vie , No. 137, 2005.
  2. Jesus and Jesus Christ, Tholib, July 1998.
  3. Andre Trocme , The Childhood of Christianity, ed. Noesis, 1997
  4. Paul Veyne , When our world has become Christian, ed. Albin Michel, 2007, p. 141
  5. Marie-mile Boismard , At the dawn of Christianity, before the birth of dogmas, ed. Cerf, 1998
  6. This council before Nicaea Nicaea and seeks to counteract this council, which validated the orthodoxy of Arius. Richard E. Rubenstein, the day when Jesus became God, ed. Discovery, 2004, p. 82
  7. Blanchetire Francis , The First Christians Were they missionaries? (30-135), ed. Cerf, 2002
  8. His Platonic Theology in 6 volumes
  9. Cf the theology of the divine who comments often lowering the Gospel account of the washing of feet
  10. Pierre Hadot , Porphyry and Victorinus. Marius Victorinus was impregnated with Neoplatonic thought porphyrienne and converted to Christianity
  11. Dominique Doucet, Augustine: the experience of the verb, ed. Vrin, 2004, p. 96, excerpt online
  12. Cf below, section Thomas Aquinas, the ontological and economic Trinity Trinity
  13. Rudolf Bultmann, Das Evangelium of Johannes, 1957 1st French translation: the Gospel of John, 1986. Bultmann hypostatic attributes the phenomenon to a source mandeiste.
  14. Adela Yarbro Collins, Mark and His Readers, The Son of God Among Greeks and Romans, The Harvard Theological Review, No. 93 Adela Yarbro Collins 2000, Mark and His Readers, The Son of God Among Jews The Harvard Theological Review, No. 92 , 1999
  15. Daniel Boyarin, op.cit. infra
  16. Alan F. Segal, Two Powers in Heaven: Early Rabbinic Reports About Christianity and Gnosticism, online here
  17. This entire section owes much to the book by Bart D. Ehrman, Christianities The Missing, the battle for the apocryphal scriptures, forgery and censures, Bayard, 2007, the case appeared in the World of the Bible No. 147, 2002, with the "bickering over the divinity of Jesus," the collection of articles led by Pierre Geoltrain, The Origins of Christianity, ed, Gallimard / Le Monde de la Bible, 2000. It is not possible to make each of these books that it deserves its own.
  18. in which case the shopkeeper is discussed docete of Christology, from the Nicene Christology
  19. The baker then follows Arius
  20. The boy bath is Gnostic.
  21. Quoted in Richard E. Rubenstein, the day when Jesus became God, ed. Discovery, 2000, pp. 25 & 267
  22. Remi Gounelle, images of Jesus in the apocryphal literature, in Gospel and Freedom , No. 140, 2001, book 203, p. 1-4
  23. a and b Simon-Claude Mimouni and Pierre Maraval, Christianity Origins to Constantine, ed. Puf / New Clio, 2007, p. 308
  24. for an overview, cf. Article herem ; for a deeper, cf. Jacob Neusner , Judaism at the dawn of Christianity, Cerf, Paris 1986 and later Dan Jaffe , Judaism and the advent of Christianity, ed. Cerf, 2005
  25. Karl Heinz Ohlig, Christology I. Origins to late antiquity, ed. Cerf, 1996
  26. Gospel of John , John 14. 9
  27. Israel Finkelstein and Neil Silberman , "The kings of the Holy Bible. In Search of David and Solomon, ed. Bayard, 2006
  28. that has nothing to do with the " devil "but characterizes a spiritual being, often familiar, both in Socrates than Paul of Tarsus. See article Christology of Paul , when the apostle speaks of his daimon contained mind when he inspires as set Boismard Marie-Emile
  29. see the etymology of the Greek (aggelos) "messenger" that the New Testament makes by " angel "
  30. Daniel Boyarin, op. cit.
  31. see Valentin Apollinarian
  32. One might think that the origin of this option is in the Christological Hebrew etymology of the name of the archangel where MI is the preposition indicating the origin and EL is the divine name in the singular. In fact, this is a comment concordist end of the match between the occurrence of the word archangel both in I Thessalonians 4:16 and John 11:43 established by The Watchtower November 1, 1985. Jehovah's Witnesses interviewed are not aware of the antiquity of the angelic Christologies
  33. cf. Marie-Therese Urvoy, article Jesus in Mr. Ali Amir-Moezzi (ed.) Dictionary of the Qur'an, ed. Robert Laffont, 2007, p. 438-441
  34. Bernard Sesbo , The Second Century: the Apostolic Fathers and apologists (1 to 7), Research in Religious Science, vol 90, 2002, p. 249-287: A Review of Reinhard M. Hbner, see bibliography online review
  35. cf Reinhard M. Hbner review cited
  36. Greek, or prosopon hupostasis, Latin, persona, understood as "the individual subject, reasonable and autonomous", cf. Paul Mattei, ancient Christianity from Jesus to Constantine, ed. Armand Colin, P. 298 A side dde this interpretation of the 4th century, recall the original meaning of hupostasis, translated into Latin by someone whose Naquet Pierre Vidal said in his lectures at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes on 7 against Thebes of Aeschylus , in 1974, these terms to denote one and the other the mask of theater
  37. If we consider the synoptic gospels, prior to that of John, the baptism is characterized by a descent into the Jordan River, in imitation of the practice of John the Baptist. The Gospel of John does not contain this episode, so we speak of "baptism by the Spirit."
  38. Ps 22
  39. Simon-Claude Mimouni and Pierre Maraval, Christianity Origins to Constantine, ed. Puf / New Clio, 2007, p. 464-465
  40. Simon-Claude Mimouni and Pierre Maraval, Christianity Origins to Constantine, ed. Puf / New Clio, 2007, p. 463-464
  41. newly created word
  42. Simon-Claude Mimouni and Pierre Maraval, Christianity Origins to Constantine, ed. Puf / New Clio, 2007, p. 464
  43. Paul Mattei, ancient Christianity from Jesus to Constantine, ed. Armand Colin, P. 202
  44. Simon-Claude Mimouni and Pierre Maraval, Christianity Origins to Constantine, ed. Puf / New Clio, 2007, p. 465
  45. Word incarnate as suggested in the Prologue of John
  46. John 15. 26
  47. according to Olivier Roy , The holy ignorance about a religion without culture, Odile Jacob
  48. Simon-Claude Mimouni and Pierre Maraval, Christianity Origins to Constantine, ed. Puf / New Clio, 2007, p. 275
  49. For this particular section is based on Frederic Lenoir, How Jesus became God, ed. Fayard, 2010
  50. For some historians, this is a theological construction and legendary Eusebio and the community of Jerusalem could not survive the events of 70. For others, this migration is possible but it is difficult to delineate the spatio-temporal. cf. Simon-Claude Mimouni and Pierre Maraval, Christianity Origins to Constantine, ed. Puf / New Clio, 2007, pp. 279, 281-282
  51. a , b and c Simon-Claude Mimouni and Pierre Maraval, Christianity Origins to Constantine, ed. Puf / New Clio, 2007, p. 285
  52. a , b and c James Tabor Nazarenes and Ebionites
  53. Simon-Claude Mimouni and Pierre Maraval, Christianity Origins to Constantine, ed. Puf / New Clio, 2007, p. 284
  54. cf. Marie-mile Boismard cited by Blaise Bayili, Inculturation, path of unity and dialogue Resurrection, ed. Harmattan, 2008, pp. 61-62, excerpt online
  55. Marie-mile Boismard, At the dawn of Christianity before the birth of dogmas, ed. Cerf, 1998, see also interview in Le Monde de la Bible No. 107, July-August 1997
  56. Pierre Hadot develops the same idea about the late Greek philosophical schools to Quest Did Ancient Philosophy? Folio tests and we have seen above the importance they had in the development of Christology
  57. Cf article of faith makes the difference between "profession" of faith and "confession" of faith
  58. cf. The development of an infra dogmatic
  59. Etienne Nodet op interview in Le Monde de la Bible No. 168, November-December 2005 online presentation , Marie-Francoise Baslez , the Maccabees colonial war and founding event, in The World of the Bible No. 168
  60. Hyam Maccoby, The Mythmaker: Paul And The Invention of Christianity, New York: Harper & Row, 1987
  61. However, the concept of "pagan-Christian" to designate the "Hellenists," or the "God-fearing," is a little loss of scholarly consensus. We reconsider the Hellenization of Judea Samaria after the conquest of Alexander. We rather think the opposition between Jews of Judea and Samaria are not yet de-Hellenized face revivalism hirosolomitain and Galilean (see Etienne Nodet op, Son of God, CERF). This image is opposed by the opposition between the Jewish school of Alexandria Greek and high school creative vivacity hirosolmytaine (See Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, around Qohelet, more precise reference shortly). Aramaic language, trying to reintroduce the Hebrew Cf Nodet op, op.
  62. Andr Paul Baptist Movements
  63. Simon-Claude Mimouni, Christians of Jewish origin in antiquity, ed. Albin Michel, coll. Presence of Judaism, 2004
  64. Andr Paul Baptist groups, op.cit
  65. douard-Marie Gall, The Messiah and his prophet, The Origins of Islam, 2 volumes, ed. Paris, 2005 review
  66. Where Gallez suggests an origin of the Nazarene of Christology Muslim Blanchetire Francis, in his investigation into the Jewish roots of the Christian movement, (30-135), CERF, suggests a pattern of common genealogy of various proto-Christians elkasaste origin.
  67. Bart D. Ehrman, Christianities The Missing Deer
  68. In particular the Anglo-Saxon school, as the conference convened Oxford Princeton The Ways That Never share the view that Christianity did not begin until the fourth century dogmatization
  69. Ohlig, Karl-Heinz (ed.), Christology (2 volumes). Volume 1: Beginnings to Late Antiquity, text in hand, Cerf;
  70. Conversely, researchers contemporary biblical scholars regard them as independent texts. See for example the work of Adrian Schenker et al op, on the Old Testament in the infancy of the Hebrew Bible, Labor et Fides.
  71. Ohlig, Karl-Heinz (ed.), Christology I, from the beginnings to late antiquity, CERF 1996.
  72. Cf Rubenstein, op.cit.infra
  73. Only subsistence of the oldest Christian church while the Armenians are a Catholic Uniate Church and the Armenian Evangelical, Reformed church.
  74. See article Ecumenism , section on the Catholic understanding of ecumenism.
  75. See Bart D. Ehrman , Christianities The Missing Bayard 2007.
  76. Paul Tillich , God beyond God, the shepherds and the Magi, 1955.
  77. Two French works expose these difficulties. For a brief overview, consult Frederic Lenoir , How Jesus became God, Fayard, 2010. For a more detailed analysis at Richard E. Rubenstein, the day when Jesus became God, Discovery, First Edition 2000.
  78. douard-Henri Weber, Christ according to St. Thomas Aquinas, Descle, 1988
  79. Published posthumously by Lessing
  80. Cf Glance history of research of the historical Jesus by Elian Cuvillier.
  81. See Record of his book on Jesus, Son of God.
  82. See Record of his book on The Crucifixion
  83. According to Jean-Louis Souletie Origin of Christianity: the Resurrection of Jesus to the story , magazine Esprit & Vie, No. 137, 2005.
  84. See biographical presentation of J. Guillet Pierre Gibert, SJ
  85. See Reading Notes on "Jesus of Nazareth by Benedict XVI by Edward Cothenet.

Selected Bibliography

Origins in the sixth century

  • a href = "Aloys_Grillmeier" alt = "Aloys Grillmeier" class = "mw-redirect"> Grillmeier Aloys, Christ in Christian Tradition, Volume I: From the Apostolic Age at Chalcedon. Second French edition, Cerf, 2003, Volume II-1: The Council of Chalcedon (451). Reception and opposition, Cerf, 1990; Volume II-2: The Church of Constantinople in the sixth century, Cerf, 1993, Volume II-4: The Church of Alexandria, Nubia and Ethiopia after 451, Cerf 1996
  • Karl-Heinz Ohlig (ed.), Christology. Volume 1: Beginnings to Late Antiquity. Volume 2: From the Middle Ages to modern times. 2 vols., Series "Texts in hand," Cerf, Paris, 1996

Contemporary Christology

Notes

Related articles

External Links


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