Al Andalus
History of al-Andalus  |
|---|
| 711 to 756 The Conquest |
|
756 - 1031 The Umayyads of Cordoba |
1031-1086 The Taifa |
1086-1147 The Almoravids |
1147-1226 Almohads |
1238 - 1492 The Kingdom of Granada |
|
| Reconquista |
| Related Topics |
| Rulers of al-Andalus |
| Science and technology |
| Maps of al-Andalus |
Al-Andalus ( in Arabic ) is the term for all lands Iberian Peninsula and Septimania which were dominated Muslim Middle Ages (711-1492) , , . The Andalucia today, which draws its name, not long constituted a small part.
The conquest and colonization of the country by the Muslims was as rapid and unexpected and corresponded to the rise of the Muslim world . Al-Andalus became a center of high culture in medieval Europe, attracting a large number of scientists, which has resulted in a period of rich cultural development , .
Summary
|
Etymology
History
The conquest of Hispania and Septimania
After conquering all of North Africa, the governor Musa Ibn Nosseyr abuts the city of Ceuta, which resists it. Byzantine territory, as the whole African coast before the arrival of Arabic, the city is too distant from Constantinople to be rescued effectively. To protect themselves, Ceuta Spain turns to the Visigoths . Julian, the governor of the city even sends his daughter to Toledo so that she can complete her education. The behavior of King Roderic violating the young woman is yet tip the situation, angry Julien wants revenge and he concluded a pact with Musa advantage by opening the doors of his city, while lauding the merits of a conquest of the Hispania. To prove his good will, he provides his Muslim troops vessels but prefers Musa, however, request permission to Caliph Walid replied: "Do explore Spain by light troops, but take care to the moment at least to expose a large army to the perils of shipping overseas .
Musa obey the caliph and thus sends a man named Abu Zora with four hundred men and one hundred horses that cross the strait aboard four ships chartered by Julian , the governor of Ceuta. After looting the coasts around Algeciras , they returned to Africa in July 710. Satisfied, Musa takes advantage of the troubles which occupied the north to King Roderic Tariq ibn Ziyad send, general of the vanguard, with 7000 men. With only four ships offered by Julien, Tariq together his troops on the mountain that now bears his name, Gibraltar . Immediately alerted, Roderic starts Tariq cons with a large army. Unable to evacuate its troops before the arrival of the Visigoths, the Muslim general opt for direct confrontation and even asks Musa sending reinforcements which offers 5000 Berber fighters, so that the Muslim forces is 12 000 men, very little compared to the armies of which are believed to Roderic numbered 40 000 . Despite this net shorthanded is treason in the camp that will help Visigoth Muslim armies.
Roderic had against him a powerful party of nobles who accused him of having usurped the throne by murdering his predecessor, Wittiza. Forced to participate in wars of Roderic, these noble nevertheless has a hatred towards their king. To destroy, they agree to betray him during the battle with Muslims . This betrayal was not intended to deliver the Hispanic Muslims, because they thought the noble goal of Tariq was only to loot the area and then leave .
The battle takes place on the Rio Wadi Lakkah on 19 July 711. Both son of Wittiza control the wings of the Spanish army and eventually betray Roderic that governs the center. During the battle, it is likely that Roderic lost life, leaving the country without a head . Tariq advantage of this situation and contrary to what he had ordered soft but also thought that the noble Visigoth, he walks forward. The advancement of Muslim troops is strengthened by the support they meet in a small nation but also Jews who have long been oppressed . After conquering Ecija, Tariq can now consider the capture of Toledo, the capital, but also Cordoba , Archidona and Elvira . Archidona, abandoned by its population, is taken without penalty, Elvira in turn is given to Jewish troops and Muslim, Cordoba comes to Tariq by a shepherd who shows him a hole where it can easily enter with his troops, and Toledo was conquered after a betrayal of the Jews of the city. The latter command is given to a brother Wittiza .
In Africa, Musa had yet ordered Tariq to return after having looted the Iberian coast is unhappy. The popularity of his general annoys him and he decided to take part in the conquest of the peninsula. In June 712, and therefore passes the Strait of Gibraltar along with 18,000 soldiers, Arab and takes Medina Sidonia and Carmona and then sets off to Toledo where he met Tariq who was severely reprimanded for his conquest of the solitary Peninsula . The rest of the peninsula, without a leader to his head, quickly submit to the Arab conquest.
The early years of Muslim presence are quite chaotic but very quickly the Muslim rulers impose order and Arab rule is accepted by the people who has the right to keep its laws and judges, but also sees the appointment of governors and Local counts . Serfs who knew the land use retain their role but must refund to the owner of the land four-fifths of the crops and if the land belongs to the state it was only three-fifth. The situation of Christians varies widely by city and conditions when signing the treaty but in general they retain most of their possessions while they must pay the state a tax of 48 dirhams for the rich , 24 for the middle class and 12 dirhams for those living in manual work. Women, children, monks, the disabled, the sick, beggars and slaves, however, are exempt . Finally, the tax is imposed if a person converts to Islam .
The arrival of the Arabs is seen as a source of freedom for many segments of society. Oppressed serfs during the reign of the Visigoth kings have a certain independence in the use of land as their new masters are poor farmers and thus let their subordinates grow as they wished. As for slaves, they were extremely easy to regain their freedom since they only needed to appear before the authorities and to make the Muslim profession of faith, they were immediately freed by Islamic law. These new laws have resulted in the conversion of many serfs and slaves . For the highest levels of society, the conversion will no longer pay the tax provided for non-Muslims .
The arrival of Muslims also brings its share of difficulties and troubles. While Christian worship is free, the church is under the authority of Muslim and Jewish communities who preside over meetings. The bishops call the sultans and treaties signed between Muslims and Christians fade over the decades. In 784, nearly seventy years after the arrival of Arabs in the Peninsula, Abd al-Rahman I requires Christians sale of half of the Cathedral of Cordoba for a hundred thousand dinars, he also violates the treaty that his predecessors had signed by confiscating the lands of Ardabast, down from Wittiza only because he is a Christian can not have a land as large . Finally, to expedite the conversion process, the tax payable by non-Muslims increases .
In 714, Tariq and Musa are expected to Damascus for investigation. The new emir al-Hurr continues 716-719 conquest and manages to the Pyrenees, destroying Tarragona and occupying Barcelona. His successors will even go beyond the Pyrenees , to Septimania Visigoth, where they will launch expeditions to the north.
In 719 , the Septimania is conquered and Narbonne is the name of arbun the seat of a wali for forty years, the capital of one of the five provinces of al-Andalus, alongside Cordoba , Toledo , Mrida and Zaragoza. Muslims left the former inhabitants, Christians and Jews, freedom to practice their religion through tribute . In 759 , Narbonne was taken over by Pepin the Short and Muslims driven out of Gaul.
The decision of the Muslim conquest in the West due course by the cons-attack Franks The internal strife The following period was marked by a succession of 21 governors, 711 to 726, taking more and more independence from the Caliphate of Damascus. From 720, internal conflicts worsen while the trend Kaisite wins. In 739 a revolt broke out of the Berbers in the Maghreb and West is reflected in Spain. First victory in Cordoba, they will be defeated and must leave the peninsula. The civil war will last for fifteen years. The overthrow of the Umayyads by the Abbasids has resulted in the emancipation of Spain: "Abd al-Rahman, son of the last small-Umayyad caliph, took refuge in North Africa , among the Berber tribes whose mother comes from. His freedman Badr him obtaining the Syrians rally and part of Kalbites of Spain, it happens in this country and captured Cordoba in 756, where he proclaimed himself amir. In 750 the Caliphate ommeyyade off with the defeat of the battle of the Great Zab and the whole family is murdered except Abd al-Rahman I who escapes and manages to reach Spain. Having himself a Berber mother it easily integrates and manages to enlist Arab and Berber many soldiers in his army. Financially poor, they can not afford to make a proper standard and be content to use a turban hanging from a lance, which also become the symbol of ommeyyades Spain. In 756 , Abd ar-Rahman arrives to ascend the throne after having found the Cordoba emirate of the same name. His son Hisham I continue the work of his father and apart from the rebellion launched by his brother the caliph of the new reign is peaceful. It is characterized by his piety, dressed with extreme simplicity he roamed the streets of Cordoba to visit the poor and the sick, distributing money to the travelers and asked his people to do the same . At the same time lived across the Muslim world, Medina lawyer and founder of the school that bears his name Imam Malik ibn Anas. When it relates to the behavior of the Amir Hisham ommeyyade it is full of praise for the leader, seeing him as the ideal Muslim ruler of the Abbasid face he sees as usurpers . Although it may seem secondary, this union between the two men will rise to a line of jurists including Spain badly needs. Hisham urges trade with Imam Malik and Malikism becomes the official branch of Sunni Islam of Al Andalus. Upon the death of Hisham, illustrious jurists such as Berber Yahiya bin Yahiya, one of the brightest students of Imam Malik teach law in Spain . The new group of monks began to form a true caste in the state, which is allowed to give their opinions and even to criticize the new Sultan Al-Hakam I felt they too pious. Even they were plotting against their leader hoping to replace it with his cousin Ibn Chammas, but it faithful to the Sultan warned of the plot and some of the ringleaders were executed . Al-Hakam, who in his youth was known for his cheerfulness and his desire to continue on the path set by his father turns over the revolts character embittered, disillusioned by the behavior of his subjects which he will not hesitate to behead the most turbulent . At the same time Al-Hakam play appeasement giving mostly Spanish cities, governors from their people, as Amrous governor of Toledo. Nevertheless, the notables of the town betray the Sultan. The reaction is immediate, Al-Hakam sends his son Abd al-Rahman run at the leaders of the day called Day of the Pit, the terror of the massacre calm all rebellions in the country for a decade . The calm, however, is only apparent because in the secret cabal still want the downfall of the Sultan. The name of Al-Hakam was insulted in the streets and mosques of Cordoba, in response it does not hesitate to execute the leaders and to engage more and more African troops being referred to as dumb as they do not know the Arabic language and therefore were the more formidable. All these actions instead of frightening the population makes more and more rebellious . The country is on the brink of civil war, and the tension reached its climax in May 814 , when the sultan's soldiers murdered an artisan of Cordoba who would not obey him, spontaneously angry crowd gathers around the palace. The Sultan and his men realize they have no chance against the people and everyone is about to be killed in the day. Al-Hakam even asks to kill the prisoners who had once led uprisings earlier so they do not survive . Before admitting defeat, Al-Hakam decided to launch an offensive last chance. It consists of sending a few riders who must fight their way through the crowd and reach the outskirts of the city to burn the houses therein, the purpose of the operation is to panic the population, seeing his abandon houses on fire arms to go put out fires. Obeid-Allah is to bear the task it performs successfully, it burns the property of the people who broke ranks and thus loosen the noose that hangs over Al-Hakam and his palace. The Sultan's army out and killing some of the protesters . The others are divided into two groups, one consisting of about 10 000 people and headed by Abu Hafs Umar ibn Suabia leave for Egypt and then to the island of Crete , where they founded their own dynasty . The second group consists of 8,000 families settled in Africa and specifically in Fez where Prince Idris I welcome them in his new capital. Sultan emerges victorious at the end of the day called the Day of the Revolt of the Suburb. The monks who led the revolt are in turn are mostly pardoned but forced into exile although the Sultan believes to be within its rights if it sentences to death the leaders of the revolt . The reign of Al-Hakam greatly strengthens the power of the emir, and he leaves to his son Abd al-Rahman II a peaceful and stable, allowing the latter to initiate the Andalusian civilization. He himself was no stranger to the arts, he invites the poet Ziriab Cordoba, who introduced Al-Andalus many Eastern practices in the arts, sciences and culture. At the age of thirty years, Abd al-Rahman II ascended the throne. Pious he also loves the arts and sciences and has the objective of bringing artists of Baghdad Abbasid court like a ship called Ziryab leading his country at the forefront in the European area, so that many Christians themselves impressed by the refinement Arabic began to use only that language which does not fail to cause bitterness among some: This bitterness is transformed in some clergymen in false propaganda to place Islam at the same level as a pagan religion . The hatred felt by priests is not against Islam but against the Arabs and especially the people who continually bully, those who barely a century ago formed the country's elite time of the Visigoth kings . It was also under the reign of Abd al-Rahman II that the Viking ships swoop down on Al-Andalus. Having plundered Seville, the Vikings forced the Sultan to establish a network of watchtowers, fortresses and a war fleet still operating a century after his death which has the immediate consequence the Viking defeat. The end of his reign was troubled by the intrigues about his succession. He had forty-five son, and the two main factions supported respectively Muhammad, the eldest son, and Abd-Allah, son of the favorite, Tarubi. The conflict went to an attempted poisoning of the emir. Finally, it was Mohammed who succeeded him. The day of the death of his father eunuchs embark on the difficult controversy in the choice of the future emir, after many hesitations they agree on the choice of Muhammad who was inducted into the evening . The new sultan did not resemble his father, a cold personality he is like the eunuchs feared his election, a rather intolerant especially towards his Christian subjects he will order the destruction of several churches. The Christian kingdoms of northern peninsula hearing the news decided to take up arms in Toledo. Muhammed feeling that the threat is at the gates of the capital sends his army to crush the rebelion. Christians to their side supported by the King of Oviedo Ordoo I also prepare their army is hiding in Toledo with their head, the Earl of Bierzo : Cato. Understanding that Muhammad can not take the city by force decides to take it by stealth. He ordered some of his men to hide behind rocks and a small force he advanced himself before the ramparts of the city. Toledan surprised by the boldness and not unsuspecting attempt led by Cato output decides to prosecute Muhammad and his men that simulate flight. Arrived with his army, which has remained hidden, the Sultan ordered the massacre of Cato and his eight thousand men who are surrounded on all sides by the Muslim troops . Despite his inability to resume Toledo, Cordoba is satisfied because Muhammad is no longer threatened, but that's not to say that harassment against Christians in Cordoba cease insofar as the Sultan increased the tax to which they had to pay . A little later a man named Ibn Marwan a descendent of a family of Visigoths converted to Islam rebelled against authority Arabic and Berber. Sends his son Muhammed Al-Mundhir and a minister named Hashim . Following a strategic mistake, the men are Sultan Hashim was killed and taken prisoner allowing Ibn Marwan to his advantage to negotiate a treaty humiliating for the sultan. The agreement provides that Ibn Marwan founded his own town called Badajoz with considerable autonomy vis--vis the Sultan. This show of weakness reduces further discredit the sultan with a population increasingly rebellious. The last major revolt in which the Sultan will face is that of Omar Ben Hafsun , a descendent of Christians converted to Islam. He settled in his fortress Bobastro where he attacks the surrounding countryside. Seeing that he is in his interest to submit it to the sultan concluded a pact and promised even in the army but left quickly and returned to his outlaw status and eventually convert to Christianity. Omar Sultan Muhammad to survive however and it was his son Al-Mundhir 's task of stopping . The new Sultan is safer and more energetic than his father and 888 / A>, he started with his army in the pacification of the territory and decided to attack Bobastro. Omar escapes by a ruse of this situation, when in Mundhir died during the siege Muhammad bin Abd Allah Omar on the death of his enemy wants to attack the funeral but Abd Allah ibn Muhammad asked him not to act, on the contrary it offers peace he accepts and submits to the new sultan. Shortly after he broke again and this alliance is relaunching in his life of plunder. When Abd Allah to his alliance with the enemies of the country earned him much criticism within the Arab nobility . A few years later, Abdullah has a chance to finally defeat his opponent at the foot of the fortress of Polei. With an army composed of fourteen thousand men was much smaller than that of Omar who had twice Abd Allah plays ommeyyade future of the dynasty, because he is well aware that a defeat to Omar would be fatal. The battle, which initially seemed confused in the clan ommeyyade eventually turn to their advantage and Omar as well as what remains of his army flees . Omar still had some success and then his conversion but his defeat by Abd Allah it is disastrous, it loses many of its elements Berber army and the support of other Muslim rebel leaders and eventually died of illness in 917. During the reign of Abd Allah Sultan's power is minimal . The reign of Abd Allah is marked by ethnic rivalries and numerous revolts that forced him to intransigence, but too low down to his authority over the years. Thus, the Arab governor of Seville Hadjabj Banu Ibrahim, took the title of king and its independence, Abd-Allah is forced to recognize that at the end of his life he will be again submitted to the authority of the Sultan which allows the return of the Sultan of force and therefore the final years of the reign of Abd Allah knew almost all of victorious battles that break the stranglehold on the sultan. In 903 his army took Jaen, in 905 she won the battle on the Guadalbollon Hafoun Ibn Ibn Mastana and, in 906 it took to Cafiete Beni-al-Khali, in 907 Archidona she forced to pay tribute in 909 she tore Luque to Ibn Mastana, she took in 910 Baeza . Abd Allah died on 15 October 912 and his successor Abd al-Rahman III. Orphaned as a young man, Abd al-Rahman was born in 891 was raised by his grandfather, until his accession to the throne at age 22 years. The enthronement of the new Sultan is well accepted and no objection is heard. While continuing the work of pacification of its predecessor, it radically changes and wants to be more firm vis--vis the rebel governors . Unlike Abd Allah was satisfied with an annual tribute to the provincial governors face dissidents, Abd Al-Rahman warns that now, in case of rebellion he will not hesitate to reconquer the lost lands and severely punish the leaders. In return he announced that he would pardon any person who would submit to his authority . While seemingly terrifying this proposal is welcomed, the war years during the reign of Abd Allah have exhausted the Andalusian, national antagonisms became extinct with the death of their instigators and the new generations aspire that to find peace. In 913 , the city of Jan is leaving the authority of the Sultan for more than twenty years and resumed , other forts surrendered without difficulty. Soon the provinces of Jaen and Elvira are pacified and eyes turn to when the central regions of the peninsula, less imbued with the Muslim religion and more fierce. The behavior of Abd al-Rahman III shows that as well fair to Muslims than to the Christians who laid down their arms aid in its recovery proves his willingness to pacify the entire country, however, as he promised It is uncompromising with those who resist it. Fortress Tolox will make the bitter experience as part of its population was murdered, in response to long months of siege Abd Al-Rahman had to carry. Seville and the family of Ibrahim banu Hadjabj who had proclaimed the independence surrendered on 20 September 913. Abd Al-Rahman Carmona back in 914 but in 915 a terrible famine struck Cordoba which forced him to interrupt his campaign. Cons this time should not preclude the pacification of the region feared that his predecessors and from which the fiercest opponents of the sultan, Ibn Marwan. These impressive victories of the Sultan's enemies who lay down their arms one after the other without fighting . The pacification of the country and destroy pockets of resistance lasted nearly ten years and the last challenge of Abd Al-Rahman, however, is the city of Toledo that is deeply resistant to the authority of the Sultan for more than twenty-four years and which has still not decided to disarm. Furious, Abd Al-Rahman brings together a large army headquarters in the month of June 930 , but the leaders of the city including that they could not resist, flee and leave the city without leadership . Abd al-Rahman, including the siege could last a long time, built a city near Toledo for his army. Starved and neglected by the King of Leon, residents finally surrendered what enchants Abd Al-Rahman a few years managed to submit the entire country and eliminate all pockets of resistance that had so long threatened the emirate . The victory of Abd Al-Rahman is not without consequence because it's desire to unite the country, puts on the same plane-ethnic society that is disagreeable to the noble Arab who sees his powers reduced, but that satisfies the Visigoths who see the fruits of their long resistance . Internationally, the emirate is also threatened. North by the Kingdom of Leon and south by a kingdom of obedience Shiite Fatimid the boatswain. In 914 , King of Len Ordoo II takes up arms against Abd al-Rahman and devastation in the territory of Merida , then took the fortress after Alanje massacred its people and its accumulated wealth . Abd Al-Rahman realizing that this was an opportunity to show its value decides to fight back, despite the fact that the district of Merida has not yet been pacified. In 916 the Sultan sends his commander Ibn Abi-Abda plunder the region. In 917 , a new attempt is unsuccessful and Ibn Abi-Abda dies there . South, Abd Al-Rahman wishes initially not exposed to the Fatimid caliphate until the country is pacified and that the kingdoms of Leon are not defeated, yet he does not hesitate to hand in support the Arab princes of North Africa who had the same enemy than himself. The emirate is booming, so if it intends to become the title of caliphate. It Abd al-Rahman III (912-961) in 929 that cuts itself off from Baghdad and proclaimed himself caliph of the third caliph of the Muslim world (with the Sunni Abbasid Baghdad that has been around 750, and the Shiite Fatimids introduced into Egypt 909). It is the culmination of al-Andalus. His son Al-Hakam II (962-976) has the largest library of its time and encourages the arts and letters. At his death, his son Hisham II was only 11 years. His regency is assured by the vizier Ibn Abi Amir that seek to reorganize the caliphate to take power. He is nicknamed Almanzor (the Victorious). It attacks the Christian kingdom of Leon and destroyed St. Jacques de Compostela in 997. He will try to impose Dynasty Amirides causing a civil war with the Legitimists. In 1010, Cordoba is on fire and, in 1031, the Muslim possessions explode in twenty Taifa (Spanish: Band faction) In each Taifa , kings encouraged the administration, economy and culture. A period of mutual competition and training. As at the lowest taifas are absorbed by others. Disorders facilitate Reconquista by Christian kings and Berbers were again called. They land in 1086, led by the Almoravids The Almoravids restore political unity of Muslim Spain and inhibit the Reconquista. They were overthrown by the Almohad in 1147. In 1212, the Almohad army was defeated at Las Navas de Tolosa. The kingdom of Granada was the last Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula. Although relatively weak militarily, it was a great cultural and architectural development. It ends in 1492, following the conquest of Granada by the Catholic Kings of Spain. This allowed the completion of the movement of Reconquista and ended the Arab-Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula. The Islamic Sunni was the official religion of Spain Muslim conquest in 711 until the fall of Granada in 1492. The other "religions of the Book" were accepted, albeit with periods of repression. In the eleventh century, Islam became the majority religion and Muslims constitute over 80% of the inhabitants of Al-Andalus . Before the 1200s, the al-Andalus was largely under Muslim domination. When Christians began to join together to push the Muslims settled since the 720s, the region was ruled by a caliph , Caliph of Cordoba. Later, the Reconquista , the Christian reconquest, began, and ended after the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, Catholic victory at the gates of Granada. In 1237, in disarray, a Muslim leader Nazari Granada took possession and founded the kingdom of Granada , vassal recognized by Castile in 1246 and thus had to pay him tribute. From time to time, conflicts broke out by refusing to pay and which ended with a new balance between the emirate and the Moorish kingdom Christian. In 1483, Muhammad XII became emir, depriving his father, an event that sparked the war of Granada. A new agreement with Castile, led a rebellion in the family of the Emir and the region of Malaga separated from the emirate. Malaga was captured by Castile and its 15,000 inhabitants were captured what frightened Muhammad. The latter, urged by the starving population and to the supremacy of the Catholic Kings, who had even artillery, surrendered January 2, 1492, ending eleven years of hostility to Grenada and seven centuries of Islamic power in Spain. The presence of Muslim populations was not lifted until 1609, when they were completely expelled from Spain by Philip III. The Emirate of Cordoba
Reign of Abd al-Rahman I, founder of the dynasty
Hisham I.
Al-Hakam I, the time for revolt
Abd al-Rahman II, the beginnings of the golden age of the emirate
Muhammad I
Abd al-Rahman III
Abd al-Rahman III
The Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba (929-1031)
The era of Taifa (1031-1086)
The Almoravids and Almohad (1086 -)
The kingdom of Granada (1238-1492)
Culture and Science
Religious diversity
Islam
Christianity
Judaism
Notes
See also
Bibliography
Related articles
External Links
Loading ...