Achaemenid
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The Achaemenid Empire ( Old Persian : is the first of Empires Persian rule over much of the Middle East. It then extends north and west in Asia Minor , in Thrace and on most coastal regions of the Black Sea , east until Afghanistan and part of Pakistan today, and south and southwest on the current Iraq , on Syria , the Egyptian , north of Saudi Arabia , the Jordan , Israel , the Lebanon and to northern Libya.
The name "Achaemenid" refers to the clan founder, who is free to 556 BC. BC State of the Medes , before his suzerain, and the great empire that resulted from the merger of the two sets. The Achaemenid empire founded by the threat twice the ancient Greeks , conquered the Egypt and ends, conquered by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. AD
Summary |
One of the specificities of the Achaemenid is to have left few written records of their history (unlike kings Assyrian example): they consist mainly of administrative records, satrapal or royal, in which were carried the most important decisions (earth moving, tax documents). Rather, through the writings of their subjects and their enemies that we know Achaemenid history, especially by Greek authors as Herodotus , Strabo , Ctesias , Polybius , Aelian , and others. In the Bible , the Book of Ezra and the Book of Esther also contain references to the Great Kings. The ancient writers also wrote about Persia, in books called Persik, works whose knowledge is limited to a few fragments, the rest having been lost. The great Achaemenid kings have also left many royal inscriptions, sources of information on the work of construction sites and their vision of the empire. Entries engage indeed many signs that, when placed in perspective with the historical context of time, to understand the political will of kings and their way of conceiving the exercise of power History The founder of this dynasty would Achaemenes (in Old Persian : Haxmani in ancient Greek or in modern Persian , meaning "a friendly spirit"). This is a person whose existence remains controversial (see below), head of a clan Persian reigning probably on other Persian tribes from the ninth centuryBC. AD Installed in northern Iran (near Lake Urmia ), the Achaemenid are so dependent on Assyrians . Under pressure from the Medes , Assyrians and Urartu , they migrate south Mountains Zagros and gradually settled in the region of Anshan in the late first millennium . Teispes have expanded the Achaemenid territory by conquering the kingdom of Anshan and Fars , earning the title of King of Anshan, while that Ashurbanipal took Susa and the Kingdom Elamite disappears temporarily. Teispes is the first Achaemenid king to be styled King (city) of Anshan. Inscriptions reveal that when Teispes dies, the kingdom is divided between two of his son, Cyrus I. (Kurashi or Kuras), ruler of Anshan, and Ariaramnes (Ariyramna, "He who has brought peace to the Iranian"), sovereign of Parsuma. Their respective son succeed them: Cambyses I. (Kambjiya, "the elder") on the throne of Anshan, and Arsames (Arsam "He who has a heroic power") on Parsuma. These kings have a limited role in the region, which is then dominated by the Medes and Assyrians. The existence of Cyrus and his reign over Anshan is attested by a seal bearing the words of Anan Kuras, son of Teispes. However, an inscription dated 639 refers to the payment of tribute to Ashurbanipal of Parsuma by Kuras, suggesting that the king would be the same Parsuma Cyrus, uniting the two crowns. This element could then synchronize stories Persian and Assyrian . However, this interpretation is discussed, and Parsuma, Anshan and Pars are likely to be distinguished . After the fall of the Assyrian kingdom , the Achaemenian recognize the authority of the Medes. Although that Herodotus has written: "It was a long time that the Persians took their party to be poorly controlled by the Medes" , the origins and conditions of this subjection are still unknown. Darius I was the first to speak of Achaemenes , he presents as the ancestor of Cyrus the Great ( 576 BC. - 529 BC. ) which would make him the founder of the line of Achaemenid kings. However, some experts argue qu'Achmns is a fictional character used by usurping the throne of Darius the Persian to legitimize its power . If one refers to the first rulers, the Achaemenid dynasty of kings runs from 650 BC. BC to 330 BC. AD approximately. In 559 BC. BC , Cyrus said Cyrus the Great succeeded his father Cambyses I installed on the throne of Anshan. Having also taken Arsames succession (his lifetime) on the crown of Parsuma Cyrus thus unifies the two kingdoms and Persian and is considered the first true king of the dynasty Achaemenid predecessors are still enslaved to the Medes. Between 553 and 550 , a war between the Medes and Persians after which Cyrus beats Astyages , king of the Medes and takes possession of Ecbatana (Hagmatna "The town rallies', the present Hamadan ). He said at that time that the Persians, "former slaves of the Medes, have become their masters" . Cyrus leaves life to save Astyages, began to behave as his legitimate successor. According Ctesias and Xenophon, it Amytis wife, daughter of Astyages. Ecbatana remains a regular residences Great Kings, as it has a strategic importance for some who wants to control Central Asia . Taking the Media by the Persians is then a major disruption, across the Middle East. The fact that Cyrus appears as the heir of Astyages led him to clash with the neighboring powers of Lydia and Babylon. Croesus , king of Lydia, and brother of Astyages "concerned about the ruin of the empire Astyages of and concerned about the increasing cases of the Persians' attack Cyrus 547 - 546. But the Persians-cons attack and continuing until Croesus his capital, Sardis, who quickly falls into the hands of Cyrus. Croesus himself up, then finally receive a city of Medea whose incomes will live the . From 546 , Cyrus restarts Asia Minor without submitting the Ionian cities and wind. Indeed, the king began a new campaign, as Babylon, Sacie, Bactria and Egypt are threatening. This period is unknown, but it seems that Cyrus takes Babylon in 539 and then submit the Bactrian and Sacae in 540. Perhaps it was then that Cyrus conquered Parthia, Drangiane, Arie, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, Gandhara, Scythia, Sattagydie, Arachosia and Makran. Darius at the beginning of his reign, has in fact these countries granted. Politically astute, Cyrus II arises "savior" of a nation that was on good terms with the Medes, to whom she had sworn allegiance. The general policy of the Achaemenian is a continuation of those of the Babylonians and Assyrians. People are encouraged to move and mix, any attempt to dilute nationalist. This is to pacify relations between peoples, and the Achaemenid period is known for its relative calm compared with other periods of the history of Central Asia. After the capture of Babylon, Cyrus allows Judeans exiles returning to Jerusalem , instructing his subjects to facilitate such return. He also ordered the reconstruction of the Temple of Jerusalem. He then conquers the Transeuphrates and submit the Arabs of Mesopotamia. Cyprus makes itself thereafter. In contrast, virtually nothing is known that maintaining relationships - this time - the empire with other parts of the country Ebir Nari (Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine). After Cyrus, his son Cambyses II conquered Egypt in 525 - 522. Then it is to maintain the power of the empire and expand the achievements to the only other power which still in the region . After the Egyptian campaign, Cambyses takes up the ambitions of the pharaohs who had preceded him. He therefore submits the kingdoms of Libya , of Cyrenaica and Nubia. During his stay in Egypt, Cambyses appears to be running amok, as suggests the acts he commits in this period: he massacre of the Persians of high distinction in breach of ancient burials, mocks the statues in Egyptian temples . The attack without preparation of the Ethiopia and the oasis of Ammon, which results in failure, would also be put on the account of this madness. Disproving the theory explaining the behavior of Cambyses against Egypt by his entourage in the only folly, the assumption of political interest is also advanced. According Briant , Cambyses also took retaliatory measures against the great families who were against its decisions . Recalled in Persia by a rebellion against his authority, he left Egypt in 522 , injured his thigh in Syria and died of gangrene. The revolt is then conducted by a group of priests who have lost their power after the conquest of Media by Cyrus. These priests, that Herodotus called Magi , usurped the throne in order to place one of their own, Gautama, who claims to be the younger brother of Cambyses II, Smerdis (or Bardiya), probably murdered three years earlier. Due to the tyranny of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Persians, Medes, and all other nations" , recognize the usurper as their king, and the more easily it gives them a tax rebate of tax or taxes for three years. According to the inscription of Bisotun , Smerdis reign seven months before being overthrown in 552 BC. AD by a distant branch of the Achaemenid family, Darius I (the old Persian Dryavu, also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). The "Magi", though persecuted, continued to exist. The year following the death of Gautama, they try to reinstall a second usurper in power Vahyazdta, presenting himself as the son of Cyrus. Attempting wins transient success then eventually fails. According to Herodotus, the aristocracy of local debate, so the best form of government for the Empire. Reports that it has been suggested that the oligarchy would divide them against each other and that democracy would lead to the reign of factions that would result in bringing a charismatic leader to take power, causing a return to monarchy. Therefore, the choice is then directly on the monarchy, being assumed that the aristocrats are then in a position to choose the ruler. Darius I is chosen as king cousin of Cambyses II and Smerdis Achaemenes he claims to their ancestor. Darius then continued the expansion of the empire. It is run Oroits , satrap of Sardis, who rebelled towards 522 - 520 , and wishes to extend its dominance to the islands of the Aegean. He conquered Samos to 520 - 519 , then march on Europe. He spent the Bosporus, leaves Greek troops at the mouth of the Danube (cities of the Hellespont and Propontis ) and walk towards Thrace. It is indeed important for the Persians, as the province is rich in strategic products: wood needed for shipbuilding and precious metals . Darius I attacked then to Greece , which had supported the rebellion of the Greek colonies then under its aegis. Because of his defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. AD , he is forced to restrict the limits of his empire to Asia Minor. Under the reign of Darius I, from 518 - 516 BC. BC , which are built the royal palaces of Persepolis and Susa , which serve as capitals for the next generation of Achaemenid kings. Xerxes I (Old Persian: Xayra Heroes among kings ") succeeded his father Darius around 486 - 485. Revolts broke out in Egypt and Greece, Xerxes began his reign by leading an expedition against Egypt. After a rapid reconquest, Xerxes march on Greece and defeated the Greeks at Thermopylae. Athens is conquered and sacked, the Parthenon was burned. Athenians and Spartans retire behind their last line of defense on the isthmus of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf. The first years of the reign of Xerxes are marked by a change of policy towards conquered peoples . Unlike his predecessors who met the shrines of the subject peoples, Xerxes is the destruction of temples in Babylon, Athens, Bactria and Egypt. The titles of Pharaoh and King of Babylonia are abandoned and the provinces reorganized satrapies. The Egyptians succeeded twice to regain their independence. According to the study of Manetho , historians Egyptians are equal periods of Achaemenid rule in Egypt with respectively XXVII ( 525 - 404 BC. ) and XXXI Dynasties ( 343 - 332 BC. J. -C. ) At Artemision , made the battle indecisive because of a storm destroying the ships of both sides, stops prematurely at the arrival of the news of the defeat at Thermopylae. The Greeks then decided to retreat. Finally, the battle of Salamis on 28 September 480 BC. AD is won by the Athenians. The loss of sea communications with the Asia strength Xerxes to retreat to Sardis. The army with which he left Greece, under the command of Mardonius , suffered another defeat at the battle of Plataea in 479 BC. AD A new Persian defeat at Mycale then encourages the Greek cities of Asia Minor to revolt. These revolts are the foundation of the Delian League, and the ensuing Persian defeats spend these territorial losses in the Aegean. However, in the fifth century BC. BC, the Achaemenid kings ruled over territories covering approximately those countries today include: Iran , Iraq , Armenia , Afghanistan , Turkey , Bulgaria , Greece (Eastern), Egypt , Syria , Pakistan (bulk), Jordan , Israel , Palestine , Lebanon , Caucasus , Central Asia , Libya , and Saudi Arabia (north). The empire eventually became the largest in the ancient world, with a territory covering approximately 7.5 million km. The defeat of Xerxes are omitted in the inscriptions of royal propaganda . Some Greeks still align themselves with Xerxes, as Pausanias , commander of the Greek fleet in 478 or Themistocles , the victor of Salamis. This allows the Persian Empire to keep many allies in the Greek cities of Asia Minor. At the conclusion of succession problems, Xerxes, who had not designated a legitimate successor, was assassinated, perhaps by one of his son . Artaxerxes I. , a son of Xerxes ascended the throne in 465 BC. AD Shortly after taking power, he faces a revolt in Bactria , where he overcomes. Artaxerxes amends court etiquette and redefines its hierarchy, which seems to mark the redefinition of relations between the Great King and the aristocracy . He continues to work at Persepolis, between 464 and 460 - 459 , and the role of the Persian capital seems to change: it is less frequently employed for the benefit of Susa and Babylon. Hypotheses suggesting a changing role of Persepolis then becoming "rather than a sanctuary city" remains uncertain . After Bactria, is Egypt, which rose against the authority of the Achaemenid Great King. Diodorus reports that the news of the murder of Xerxes and the ensuing unrest push to expel the Egyptian tribute Persian Flushing and wear some Inaros royal power (463-462). Inaros proposed an alliance with the Greeks, who accept and send a fleet to the Nile . The alliance between Greek and Egyptian lasts six years ( 460 - 454 ). In 454 the Persian army and fleet and cut free the Persians besieged in Memphis / A>. Of inscriptions in Egypt at that time suggest that only the Delta region of the Nile had raised. The revolt of this period are indicative of gaps in the territorial domination of the Persians . Ocho, another half brother of Xerxes, then Babylon, and gathers its supporters march on Persia. He is the murderer to death and was crowned King of Kings in the name of Darius II in 423. The course of succession poses a new problem, and Ocho Sogdianus have certainly led everyone a propaganda campaign to have the support of the Persian people and demonstrate the legitimacy of their accession to the throne . From the reign of Darius II, the documents found are rare and only provide information on the situation of the western marches of the empire, where hostilities between Greek and Persian continue. Between 411 and 407 , the Athenians reconquer a part of Asia Minor, aided by the competing and uncoordinated initiatives satraps controlling these regions . Darius II died in 405 - 404. Like the other Great Kings earlier, his estate causes again a contrast between two of his son, Arses and Cyrus. It Arses, the eldest, who ascended the throne under the name of Artaxerxes II in 404. Cyrus denies him the power and a war ensues between 404 and 401. Cyrus raised an army, relying mainly on the Persians in Asia Minor, but also on Greek mercenaries (the " Ten Thousand ). The two brothers clash in Counaxa in Mesopotamia in 401. Cyrus killed during this battle, Artaxerxes II immediately began a process of re-legitimization of royal power . Egypt benefits from these disorders to revolt and escape from the Persian domination under the leadership of Amyrte. Satrapies and cities of Asia Minor who had lined up on the side of Cyrus are entrusted to Tissaphernes order so that it calls into the region. Artaxerxes II has indeed regain control of the Aegean coast. Those who refuse to submit to turn to the Greeks, especially Sparta for help. Agesilaus II leads the Spartan military campaign in Asia Minor, without great success . He was recalled to Sparta as other Greek cities, including Athens , threaten the city. The Persians are found subsequently caught in the battles of the Athenians and Spartans taking place in Asia Minor to 396. Artaxerxes II should combat the attacks and alliances of Evagoras of Salamis in Cyprus and Egypt between 391 and 387. Exhausted by continual wars, the Greek cities aspire to peace . In 386 , Artaxerxes II imposes his peace (also known as the "peace of Antalkidas") the Greek cities, which accept all except Thebes. The King needs to free his army to deal with Egypt, which is also back in rebellion. Around 381 - 380 , the Persians would have suffered a defeat against the Egyptians, who manage to regain their independence . Following this defeat, the Achaemenid armies leave Egypt without success to regain control of the country. The peace of 386 with the Greeks was confirmed twice in 375 then 371. Soon after, between 366 and 358 , the empire in turmoil: rebel satraps in Cappadocia, Caria, Lycia, the Egyptian lead an offensive against the Persians. The revolts in Asia Minor will be of little consequence. Coupled with the failure in Egypt, these events suggest a certain instability of imperial power and its inability to overcome the movement of revolt . It was during the reign of Artaxerxes II only beginning to be worshiped Anahita and Mithra , while the Persian kings did not cite precedents that Ahura Mazda in their inscriptions. Historians still question whether it is a real novelty introduced by Xerxes or whether the practice existed before. The last years of Artaxerxes take place among the plots. King had three legitimate son, Darius (the elder), and Ocho Ariasps and many bastards of his concubines. According to Plutarch, King Darius as his heir designate . Darius fomenting a plot against his father, was discovered, tried and put to death. Ocho, by maneuvers destabilizes his brother Ariasps, who commits suicide. He then removes another of his half-brothers, Arsames. It is within this context that the king Artaxerxes II died of old age 359 / 358. This story is not corroborated by any other author, and it is better to see before the king's death, the court was troubled by factional plots . Ocho ascended the throne under the name of Artaxerxes III ( -358 - -338 ). From the beginning of his reign, Artaxerxes III is facing trouble: the fighting between the allies of Athens in the Persian Asia Minor, revolts occur in Phoenicia and Cyprus between 351 and 345. The Persian army also suffered another setback in Egypt in 351. In -343 Artaxerxes III defeated Nectanebo II and reconquered Egypt, which becomes again a Persian satrap. Greece, Macedonia began to confront the Persian Empire on its western front . In -338 , Philip II of Macedon unites some Greek states, the other opposed to Philip II rely on the assistance of the Great King. The exact relationship is unclear, but Briant said that the "court Origins of the dynasty
Achaemenid Rulers
Unattested -688 / -675 Achaemenes King of Anshan -675 / -640 Teispes King of Anshan, son of Achaemenes -640 / -600 Cyrus I. King of Anshan, son of Teispes -6?? / -6? : Ariaramnes son of Teispes and co-ruler with Cyrus I.. -600 / -559 Cambyses I. King of Anshan, son of Cyrus I. -6?? / -5? Arsames son of Ariaramnes and co-ruler with Cambyses I. Attested -559 ( -550? ) / -529 ( -530? ) Cyrus II the Great Great King of Persia, son of Cambyses I, king of Anshan as 559 BC. BC - captured the Medes in 550 BC. AD -529 / -522 Cambyses II Great King of Persia, son of Cyrus the Great -522 / -522 Bardiya (or Smerdis) The usurper (?), Great King of Persia, son of Cyrus the Great assumed -522 ( -521? ) / -486 Darius I the Great Great King of Persia, brother and grandson of Smerdis son of Arsames -486 ( 485? ) / -465 Xerxes I Great King of Persia, son of Darius I. -465 / -424 Artaxerxes I. Long Hand Great King of Persia, son of Xerxes I -424 / -424 Xerxes II Great King of Persia, son of Artaxerxes I. -424 / -424 ( -423? ) Sogdianus Great King of Persia, half-brother and rival of Xerxes II -424 ( -423? ) / -404 ( -405? ) Darius II Nothos Great King of Persia, half-brother and rival of Xerxes II -404 / -359 Artaxerxes II Mnemon Great King of Persia, son of Darius II (see also Xenophon ) -359 ( -358? ) / -338 Artaxerxes III Ocho Great King of Persia, son of Artaxerxes II -338 / -336 Arses Great King of Persia, son of Artaxerxes III -336 / -330 Darius III Codomannus Great King of Persia, great-grand-son of Darius II (conquests of Alexander the Great ) Construction and expansion of the empire
The erosion of power Persian
Fall of the Empire
Detail of Roman mosaic of the Battle of Issus between Alexander the Great to Darius III
Arses Artaxerxes III succeeded under the name of Artaxerxes IV , and is also poisoned by Bagoas two years later. Bagoas have killed not only all the children of Arses, but also several other local princes, probably satraps. Bagoas then placed on the throne, Darius III ( -336 - -330 ), a cousin of Artaxerxes III. For Macedonian Bagoas would have been a friend of his slaves to power under the name of Darius III . For the Persians, Darius came to power because he has shown exceptional courage in a duel against the singular Cadusians . The accession to the throne of Darius III is surrounded by violence and uncertainty remains about the conditions of access to the throne. Briant relates that Darius III was a member of the "royal stock," presented as a warrior elite and supported by much of the aristocracy and the army .
Darius III, well before satrap of Armenia , has no imperial experience. Nevertheless, he proved his courage in the first year of his reign of Emperor personally forcing Bagoas swallowing a poison. In -334 , while Darius has just successfully re-submit Egypt, Alexander attack in Asia Minor. In response to aggression Macedonian satraps of western mobilize and come to meet the invader. Darius III and several of his satraps make use of Greek mercenaries to strengthen his armies. There remain many questions about the role of Greek mercenaries in the decline of military power after the Persian accounts of different sources . The Persian army then wipes a first defeat at Granicus against the troops Macedonian veteran in the battle. Subsequent defeats in battle of Issus ( -332 ) of Gaugamela and Babylon ( -331 ). Populations conquered by the Macedonians were rather relieved to liberation from Persian by different authors . Pushing ever further, Alexander then marched on Suse capitulating and restores a vast treasure. The conqueror then heads east towards Persepolis who goes to the top of -330. Darius then found refuge Ecbatana and gathers an army around him. Persepolis, Alexander then goes to Pasargadae a little further north, where he treats with respect the tomb of Cyrus II. He then goes to Ecbatana. Along the way, the satraps of Darius to Alexander III go before the unfavorable balance of power. During the flight of Darius III, the satraps of the king's closest seem to have organized a plot around him. Darius III is assassinated by many of his satraps, who go to Alexander or return to their province to be proclaimed King . By order of Alexander, honors are rendered to the sovereign body is being transported to Persepolis to be buried.
The Achaemenid empire ends with the death of Darius III . After the conquest and the reign of Alexander opens the era of the Seleucids , a dynasty after one of the generals of Alexander the Great, the Achaemenid succeed.
Politics and administration
The Achaemenid Persian Empire was a multinational state hierarchy dominated by Persians who occupy positions very heavily civilian and military importance. The State is organized as a division into provinces, called "country" by the Persians and " satrapies "by the Greeks . Covering areas whose extent varies widely, organizing satrapies features some of the existing structures, leaving intact the old part of local areas (princes, dynasties).
Legacy of the Indo-Iranian society is feudal imperial based on personal loyalty between the king and every subject . In the immediate entourage of the king is the nobility forming the court. The authorities of the empire, whether administrative or military are called "vassals" or "followers" . Their loyalty was rewarded generously by the king, while their disloyalty was punished very severely . The whole society was subject to the king, which is itself subject to Ahura Mazda. The fact that classes or castes have existed in a very institutionalized can not be proved . The Persian character, and more generally Aryan (in the direction of Iran) of the king, his descendants and his God ( Ahura Mazda , also called "God of the Aryans" on the registration of Bisotun ) is repeatedly stressed by various kings.
The reign of the Achaemenid appears to have been fairly liberal, granting autonomy to the peoples of the Empire . The unification of peoples is made administratively, without any intention of establishing a cultural unity. Every people has the ability to maintain its customs, forms of organization, its language and religion as the administration remains under Persian control. The community work of many people in major cities of the empire (as in Susa or Persepolis during major works) has played much for tolerance and mutual assimilation of peoples .
Government and administrative centers
The administrative center of the empire is the royal palace, where the administrative system is organized on the Babylonian model. The Chancery is held very accurately, both at court and other administrative authorities. Diplomatic language and communication is the Aramaic , which is then used throughout the Empire from Darius (see below). At the time of Cyrus, the seat of government was located Ecbatana. Susa became the administrative capital of the empire probably from the time of Darius. In fact, the authors state that the Greek Achaemenid kings moved their capital according to season: in winter, the Kings are in Susa , in summer Ecbatana , fall to Persepolis and the rest of the year in Babylon . However, Pasargadae and Persepolis does not really work as administrative offices, but rather as ceremonial cities.
satrapies
The organization of the empire in satrapies is present from Cyrus. Local authorities have persisted in part retain authority over their domains, separated from each other.
The ideological strategy developed by Cyrus and Cambyses, taken over by their successors, indeed aims to establish the domination of an ideology calling for collaboration with local power structures. The conquerors and seeking to appear more as protecting the traditions and shrines such as upsetting. Local elites were thus associated with the smooth running of the new empire .
Satrapies are governed by the satraps , appointed by the king indefinitely. As their title indicates, the satraps were "protectors of the kingdom" and not tributary kings. However, they are directly responsible vis--vis the king's representative in the provinces. Their responsibilities are vast: they are responsible for the collection of tribute and taxes, justice and supervision of the economy of their province. They also have the power to negotiate with neighboring states and make war. The princes are generally chosen from the Persian and Median nobles, even among the royal princes. Hystapes, father of Darius, was satrap of Parthia , Masistes, brother of Xerxes, was satrap of Bactria . The satraps themselves undergo inspections by inspectors Royal, called the "eyes" or "ears of the king" . These inspectors travel throughout the empire, together with sufficient force if necessary immediate action. They make unannounced visits to inspect the administration of the satraps or other members of the royal administration and report what they see directly to the king. Similar to the power of a king, the power of princes exercised a smaller scale. However, we note that as far, some satraps showed disobedience to royal power, behaving as true kings. Over time, the power in the Achaemenid empire was indeed moved to the satraps .
Reforms of Darius
During his reign, Darius reformed the organization of the empire. It adopts a new mode of administration and left the local government. Countries must pay tribute (see below) and obey the law of the king. Persians are only exempted from tribute and are not governed by a satrap, but by the king himself .
The reforms of Darius will rearrange the provincial administration. Indeed, early in the reign of Darius, the division of the empire in satrapies is given by the inclusion of Bisotun , where 23 countries are listed : Persia , Elam , Babylonia , Assyria , Arabia , Egypt , the people Sea , Lydia , Ionia , Media , Armenia , Cappadocia , Parthia , Drangiane , Arie , Chorasmia , Bactria , Sogdiana , Gandara , Scythia , Sattagydie, Arachosia and Maka. However, during the reign of Darius, changes have occurred since new names appear: Saggart, India , Thrace , Libya and rot. The reasons for the changes of borders and divisions satrapies are unknown. It may be assumed that the number tends to increase with time, to make satrapies smaller and therefore easier to control .
Other achievements include the reign of Darius the standardization of weights and measures, the establishment of a currency of the empire, building a legal system and the construction of a new capital at Persepolis , where the states vassals offer annual tributes on the occasion of Nowruz , the Iranian traditional holiday celebrating the equinox of spring.
Laws and Justice
Cyrus II and Darius I introduce each number of new laws. These, particularly the civil law, are based on ancient Persian law strongly influenced by those of other kingdoms of the ancient Near East . No code of law has survived, unfortunately, outside the cylinder of Cyrus that more is not really one. This document, sometimes considered the first known text dealing with human rights, describes a political vision of altruistic society of that time :
- The text establishes the consent of the subjects of sovereignty, and peaceful resolution of conflicts.
- It prohibits slavery and forced labor, recognizes the right to wages, the right to work, and property.
- It guarantees freedom of religion and conversion, movement, and respect traditions and customs.
- It introduces the principle of individual responsibility for the fault.
- It enshrines the rights enacted, the struggle against oppression, and affirms the right to life.
kept at the National Museum of Iran .
If the Achaemenid kings are all legislators, Darius is particularly distinguished by the breadth of its reform of the legal system. The reorganization of the empire presupposes significant developments in legislation, essential components of public order. All entries left by Darius emphasize its role as a legislator, and binding on the king's law to the law of God . The legislature, however, royal grants of importance to local laws and customs, as shown by the example of Darius compile the Egyptian law and granting it validity . Similarly, the Bible mentions the efforts of the scribe Ezra to codify the Mosaic Law to the Jewish community who returned from exile. This consolidation is completed by Artaxerxes I. .
The judiciary is ensured by the king and the "royal judges" . These are Persian royal judges and are appointed for life by the king, the principle of absolute power can not be questioned. The role of these judges is to give justice and interpret the ancient laws. Herodotus describes the principles to be followed in all circumstances : careful examination of the facts, then the crime under consideration of previous actions of the accused (such judgments should be compared with the Zoroastrian conception of Judgement after death).
The Achaemenid attach great importance to justice: the Greek authors report the killing of corrupt judges. Punishments and sentences are cruel, like all those practiced in the Middle East at that time (crucifixion, impalement, mutilation, banishment, etc..)
Economy
Monetary System
kept at the Cabinet of medals .
Darius I seem to be the first Achaemenid king to mint its own currency . But money, by conveying a representation of a king in warrior stance, has an ideological function more economically. The exchanges are also sterling silver . Darius work thereafter to enforce the adoption of a standard weight Achaemenid throughout the state, which is mainly used to ensure fairness in weighing tributes . The unification of the monetary system can then facilitate trade and banking .
The new monetary standard is the daric (dareikos in Greek), made of pure gold (23.25 carats ) and weighing about 8.34 grams. 3000 drams are a talent, which is the largest unit of weight and money. The minting of gold coins is a prerogative of the king. There are also pieces of silver (90% pure) or called shekels shekels (siglos in Greek), weighing about 5.56 grams. Twenty shekels have the value of a daric. The silver and copper may be occasionally affected by the satraps.
The transition to this monetary system is also evidenced by the tablets found at Persepolis. During the early years of the reign of Darius, the wages are paid in kind during the following decades, the currency payments increase sharply, so that the monetary system is fully established at the end of the reign of Xerxes I. However, trade with other countries is rather based on exchanges in kind, money Persian mainly play a role in trade with the Greek provinces.
However, the reform of the monetary system remains only partial, because the Achaemenid kings prefer to hoard their treasures in the royal values, so most of the precious metals are never turned into coins.
Taxes and tributes
kept at the Louvre .
During the reign of Cyrus and Cambyses, the Persian king received gifts from the conquered countries. From the reign of Darius, all tax districts (corresponding to almost satrapies ) must pay a fixed tribute, whose amount is set by weight of gold and silver added goods in kind to the economic resources of the district (wood, horses, grain, etc.).. The appearance of such tax attributable to the fact that in order to complete its reform of the empire, Darius needs to give his administration funding based on a new economic base. For this, it creates and imposes a fixed tribute to each country conquered (with the exception of Fars , region of origin of Persians ). It is indeed to raise sufficient funds to finance expenditures of the state and the king's servants and pay royal officials, funding for public work or apparat (construction of palaces, roads and canals for example) .
To offset the relative local independence afforded to provinces through the system satrapies, inspectors roam the royal empire. Called the "eyes and ears of the king," they do send him reports on local affairs. Detailed statistics on the tributes are given by Herodotus , Histories . The administration of treasures results in inventories and accounts, reported on numerous shelves Elamite , whose review can restore the activity of tax officials. Tablets also mention other sources of income of the treasury, consisting of trade taxes and customs collected on the royal roads or city gates. However, no detail is still known today.
Trade and communications
International trade is growing steadily during the Achaemenid period. This is particularly due to the introduction of the monetary system and a system of weights and measures that facilitate unified payments and create favorable conditions for trade development .
The large size of the empire also calls for the development of trade routes: the imperial government must facilitate the transport of goods over the vast distances that separate the different parts of the empire. Darius I ordered the construction of roads to to speed the journey of the caravan trade, troops and inspectors of the king. The twenty satrapies are then connected by a road connecting Susa and Babylon with the provincial capitals. The most impressive part of this network is the Royal Route , which stretches over 2500 km between Susa and Sardis , built on an order of Darius I . This road has 111 stations (stathmoi), and relays of couriers on horseback can reach the most remote areas in fifteen days. These roads were guarded by patrols, as told by Greek authors.
Moreover, trade by water is also facilitated by the opening of the Suez Canal antique, which connects the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Provided by the Pharaoh Necho II , this channel is actually completed by Darius I .
In addition to consolidating the trade routes of the empire, new trade routes are explored: Darius also funds expeditions like Scylax of Caryanda , who discovered the mouth of the Indus along the coastal road from the Persian Gulf . The Journey of Scylax Caryanda is the first piece of information on India known in the West.
Agriculture and Irrigation
The Achaemenid makes significant changes to agriculture, a mainstay of the economic life of the empire. The irrigation improvement is notable, especially in areas with limited water: Egypt, Babylonia, Iran, Central Asia. The irrigation system called Qanat , which provides more water in Iran and Afghanistan today, develops into effect at that time . It is the king himself who built these underground irrigation canals, and who rents or gives the usufruct for five generations to the family involved in its construction .
Farm owners are the most important king, the noble families (mostly Iranian), temples and large contractors . These broad areas that will eventually rise to the Persian gardens , consisting of cultivated farmland , and game reserves or botanical that the Greeks called paradeisoi (which gave the word paradise ).
p> The economic situation varies widely from one province to another, however, declines from the fourth centuryBC. AD: taxes are becoming heavier and weigh on the local economy also suffers from the storage of gold and money paid to mercenaries. The royal administration fails to maintain satisfactory economic conditions in the empire.Army
At the time of Cyrus I. All men Persians had to fight for the king. In addition to its strategic military importance, the imperial army also plays an important political role, ensuring the continuation of the political union of all territories united under the leadership of the Achaemenid , from which the guards of the royal palaces. The head of the unit (called hazparati), as "second to the King" , also ensured the command of the whole imperial army. The army was divided between infantry and horsemen, all drawn from the nobility. In the inscriptions, this army is called Kara.
The army had permanent garrisons throughout the Empire, commanded by officers Persian. The garrisons were placed at strategic points: The forts on the highways of the empire, borders or even in military settlements (as at Elephantine on the Egyptian-Nubian). These garrisons were composed of elements Persians, Medes, Greeks, Chorasmians , especially Jews .
The satraps were responsible for procurement, maintenance and financing of such armed forces stationed on their administrative domain, they are however, not support their military command. This is indeed done by a separate hierarchy and subject to royal authority .
In peacetime, the army is mainly composed of Persian and Medes.
In wartime, this professional army was compensates by troops raised among the various peoples of the empire . This army "reserve" was then divided into national units and equipped according to their national customs . Each consisted of infantry and cavalry troops of archers .
The clothing and equipment soldiers quotas described by Herodotus are extremely heterogeneous, depending on the people concerned. They reflect a wide diversity :
- Skin clothing (Ethiopian Utians, myques, Paricanians), coated with plaster body or vermilion (Ethiopian), caps and boots fox pelts Fawn (Thracian);
- Wicker shields (Persian) or skin (Paphlagonians, Ethiopian) helmets, wood (Colchians) or Bronze (Assyrian);
- Masses of wood studded with nails (Assyrian), axes (Sacae), arrowheads and carved stone spades gazelle horn carved as a spearhead (Ethiopia), rope thrown to immobilize the opponent's legs and daggers (Sagartians);
- Amount camel riders (Arabs) or horses, chariots and horses or donkeys;
This heterogeneity of the troops, their armament and equipment, and their combat skills, naturally raises the question of the effectiveness of command and coordination problems in combat maneuvers. Quintus Curtius same stresses that diversity is such that the King did not know all the peoples that make up its army, and that the people did not know who were their allies. For Briant, if this diversity has been advanced to explain the first defeats Persians against the Greeks and Macedonians, it ignores the fact that the quotas described by Herodotus never actually participated in the fighting, which involved mostly elite troops mainly from the Iranian plateau. The fighters engaged to Thermopylae and were Persian kissiens and immortal guards, and those committed to Plataea were Persians, Medes, Bactrian, Indian, Sacae and Mycale .
Briant notes that the Army reviews by Xerxes, rather in a ceremonial context: King acknowledging his power through the presentation of his army. The goal was not to count the military forces available, but for the king to take the diversity of his empire and boost the morale of his troops. Based on the interpretation of Quintus Curtius, it therefore makes a distinction between those troops staged parades to represent the imperial space down to its most marginalized peoples, and the troops fighting mostly Iranian and selected . At the end of the Achaemenid era, the Persian soldiers have increasingly been replaced by Greek mercenaries.
Culture
Language
The administrative language of the empire is the Aramaic , which is also used for inter-regional communication. However, other languages have a more limited in space and time. Neo-Elamite and is the official language of the court in Fars , as evidenced by the tablets found at Persepolis (dated between 509 and 458) . Other languages have local use, such as Egyptian, Greek, Lydian or Lycian.
The Elamite and Neo-Babylonian are used in royal inscriptions, such as Old Persian , a language whose writing was invented at the time of Darius I.. The latter is used primarily for representing, as is the case on the Registration of Bisotun.
Life during the Achaemenid period
- Life at the royal court
The royal court seems to be a celebration of power in the Achaemenid empire: that is where the King lives with his family and his pets. This is also where the nobles must reside, that administrative decisions are made and policy, that the satraps are called or received. However, documents on the court life are scarce and unevenly distributed .
The Achaemenid king moves periodically between the various royal residences ( Persepolis , Susa , Ecbatana , etc..) accompanied by the court and its various services. During travel, the sovereign houses in a very luxurious tent erected in the middle of the camp and provided with distinctive signs . Briant admits that these tents could be replicas of the palaces of Susa and Persepolis. Life at the Royal Court seems settled by courtly etiquette very stringent . The King is surrounded by senior officers of the court, having charge of various affairs (Royal Treasury, Chancellor), who report to him directly. A large staff is also responsible for servicing hearings. Indeed, the petitioners and supplicants come to the king's gate. These visitors send messages to their guardians or holders of message, and are received before the king on call . Anyone approaching the king without being summoned is sentenced to death .
The king usually takes his meals alone, for safety reasons. At banquets, the guests place is carefully chosen, both to witness the king's favor and to ensure its security. Greek authors are struck by the luxury and pomp of court banquets. The king's food and food are transported separately, like those of the Immortals . Poisonings are common in the court so the king takes him everywhere with water Choaspes , the river flowing at Susa. The water is boiled and transported in vessels of silver . Similarly, the function of butler is very important to the court, the king drinks a wine that is reserved, and the butler also serves taster .
These measures not only serve to underline the special place of the king, they also seem to preserve their health . Physicians therefore, also take an important place in the royal entourage. Close to the king as the butler, it is easy to poison the monarch. These functions are therefore destined to people you trust. The royal physicians are mostly Greek and Egyptian.
Among the staff of the court eunuchs are also divided into two categories: those part of the entourage of King and others, domestic. The service of the king and royal princesses requires numerous servants and eunuchs. Their role is to watch over the king's chamber and princesses . They are usually from countries subject, and their status is similar to that of slaves, even if their intimacy with the king gives them a special status .
Many ancient authors tell us that the King, and others, practice polygamy and have many concubines, . The royal princesses, and all women in general, have private apartments. Concubines living in a "house of women" after spending a night with the Great King , and remain with him. The royal princesses have greater autonomy and travel, as evidenced by the Persepolis tablets. They also manage their lands, their servants or their workshops .
Hunting is probably the favorite hobby of kings. She indeed has the advantage of being a very good physical preparation for the young noble, and an event in which he can show his courage, his skill and power (the first line reserved for him). Hunting is practiced in pairidaeza, parks closed wide area: in fact the word meaning "having a fence on all sides." These gardens are both places of recreation and leisure, arranged by horticulturists, and vast game reserves . Hunting techniques vary: on foot, horseback, chariot using the sword, archery, javelin, or net. A letter to Darius Gadatas, who transplanted the fruit between the Euphrates and the Asian coastline, reported the interest of the great king for horticulture.
- Life outside the royal court
Given the nature of contemporary documents, the daily subjects of the empire is even less well known than the courtiers: if the plans of the royal palaces are well known, those private houses of the time is not outside those of the Achaemenid Babylon. The walls are made of raw clay bricks fitted with a mortar of clay and straw. The isolation of the parties is carried low wall with bitumen. Achaemenid houses seem to be built around a courtyard overlooking a porch, maybe one or two stages . Regarding the furniture, the quality and the precious furniture, carpets and other valuables Persians are famous.
The outfits are best known through the many representations of subjects in works of art of the Achaemenid period. The Persians then wear long pleated dresses with or without sleeves, supported by a belt, as a sweat. They also know the underwear (in the form of leather trousers or fine cloth), they are mostly for riding. The shoes are of two types: flat shoes with closed 3 or 4 laces, or boots. The hats come in many shapes and materials varied from simple headband to the spherical cap, the cap fluted or felts and hats. The color of the clothes used to distinguish social classes throughout the Achaemenid period. Red is the color of the warriors, the white, the priests and the blue of the peasants. The king is wearing clothes in these colors to show his authority over the three social classes. These are the reliefs of Persepolis , which indicate that information on men's clothing .
The various known sources give very little information on the education of youth. Although education is in principle open to all Persians, children remain largely illiterate peasants. Based on the known texts, it seems that the education of young noblemen Achaemenid begins at age five, and lasts from ten to twenty years according to sources. Strabo says that young people exercised at the gym, trained at archery, spear and sling, and learn to plant trees, gather plants and manufacture clothing and nets. Xenophon reports that their education includes a portion designed to develop their sense of justice, obedience, endurance and self-control .
Religion
It was during the Achaemenid period that the religious practices of Zoroastrianism reach the south-western Iran, through them, becoming a key element of Persian culture. We are however unable to say whether Zoroastrianism is a proper, because the texts do not mention royal Achaemenid Zarathustra , or very close to a religion but Zoroastrianism is not a strict sense.
Under the patronage of the Achaemenid kings, around the fifth centuryBC. BC, Zoroastrianism became the de facto religion of the State and reached the limits of the empire. At the same time, religion is subject to a strong syncretism, especially the religions of Mesopotamia and of Elam , whose deities take on a planetary and astral.
In the mid-fifth century BC. BC, that is to say, during the reign of Artaxerxes I. and Darius II , Herodotus wrote: "The Persians had no images of God, no temples nor altars, and consider their use as a folly. This comes, I think, because they do not believe that the gods have the same nature as men, as the Greeks imagine. "Affirming also that the Persians offer sacrifice" in the sun and moon, earth, fire, water and wind, it also details: "They are the only gods whose worship is its origin in times past. Later, they began to worship Urania, which they borrowed from the Arabs and Assyrians. Mylitta is the name under which the Assyrians know this goddess, as Arabs call Alitta and Persian Anahita . In fact, it's more of Mithras , long confused with Anahita. The two goddesses are indeed commonly worshiped in the same temples. Concerning sacrifices, Herodotus adds, "they did not keep altars, not lighting a fire, paying no libations. "It may be noted that this phrase is often misinterpreted as referring to the Zoroastrian practices: the erection of altars and ritual use of fire, and the service of Yasna , correspond to modern Zoroastrian practices, n ' Having not yet developed at that time.
Confirming the writings of Herodotus, the use of material representations in the Persian God seems to begin with the erection of statues by Artaxerxes II. The priest-scientist Babylonian Berosus relates Artaxerxes is indeed the first to pay tribute to the statues of deities and that he has placed in the temples of the major cities of the empire .
Herodotus also notes that no prayer or offering may be made without the presence of a magician. Traditionally responsible for rituals and religious services, the Magi are not associated with any particular religion. In addition, function as a priest is transmitted through heredity.
The reign of Darius I see religion become especially linked to the monarchical ideology. The many testimonials left by Darius and his son Xerxes I on enrollment and reliefs of royal Bisotun , Persepolis , and Susa , attest to a continuing effort to legitimize royal power and the succession of Darius by the will of Ahura Mazda. Persepolis expresses the image of royal power and unlimited sovereign, King ensuring the unity of the world by his virtues conferred by the protection of Ahuramazda .
The god, then invoked as the largest, is the source of power and influence Royal . One of the reliefs of the palace of the 100 columns of Persepolis describes the order of things, showing from top to bottom: Ahura Mazda , the king on his throne, then several rows of soldiers supporting him. The message of this relief is clear: the king holds his power of Ahura Mazda that protects and controls the army, which bears his power .
Art
The Achaemenid art is an art of dignifying, serving across the empire to glorify the ruling dynasty Architecture and Urbanism One characteristic of the Achaemenid empire in the erection in the reign of Cyrus the Great of monumental buildings palate in total rupture with the absence of such constructions in the earlier periods. Indeed, the Persians did not have the original architectural own baggage: it was indeed a semi-nomadic pastoralists, and horsemen . They therefore call on the know-how of workmen, artisans and architects from all nations of the empire, incorporating these influences and provide a quick original art whose style is marked by the combination of elements from the civilizations subject. It's not a hybrid, but rather a fusion of styles that create a new one. The Persian architecture is utilitarian, ritual, and symbolic . Present in the Middle East before the Persians, the principle of internal spaces created by media and wooden ceilings evolves, the room hypostyle becomes the centerpiece of the palace. The contribution of technical Greek Persian architecture allows to achieve different constructions in which space has different functions: the release of large areas through high columns and thin is a breakthrough architectural own to Persia. The rooms hypostyle are intended to crowds and over only to priests as Greece or Egypt . Due to the inclusion of Ionia in satrapies of the empire, the architecture Persian Achaemenid is marked by a strong Greek influence Ionian particularly visible in the halls hypostyle and porticoes of palaces of Persepolis . Architects Lydian and Ionian are indeed engaged on sites Pasargadae , and later those of Persepolis and Susa. They carry the major elements and we find graffiti in Greek and in quarries near Persepolis, mentioning the names of heads carriers. They play a major role in the outbreak of the Persian style, both in the device into the masonry. The participation of Greeks in the erection of columns and ornamental palaces in Persia is also mentioned in the charter of Susa, and by Pliny the Elder , . Achaemenid palaces also bear the marks of influences Mesopotamia (especially in the palatal formula combining two palaces, one for the public hearing and the other for private audience), Babylonian (relief and polychrome enamel), Assyrian ( orthostats decorated with bas reliefs of winged bulls with men-door), Egyptian (gorge ledges overlooking the doors, gates) , . That Cyrus was the first, uses architecture and urbanism to express the cultural diversity of the empire and assert the strength of central power. Pasargadae is designed by the king and his advisers, and the work is done by craftsmen Lydian and Mesopotamian, which presence is attested by tablets . Borrowing stylistic regions of Anatolia, Assyrian-Babylonian or Phoenician and Egyptian are many Pasargadae. The result is not a juxtaposition of disparate styles but a new set that is part of an imperial and dynastic . Pasargadae marks a first step in the development of Persian architectural style and urban planning: a plain situated within a large park irrigation and dominated by a fortress, its structure covers about 10 hectares and is organized in a plane orthogonal but not yet symmetrical. Flags adorned with square columns in front form the access to different areas of the group that also includes two palaces hypostyle asymmetric. One flanked laterally by 2 large cranes of unequal length is thus a form of "H", the other real stylistic draft, announces future apadana of Susa and Persepolis. Asymmetric wings and the presence of lateral recesses are indicative of architectural research and trial and error still unfulfilled . To mark his accession to power, and provide legitimacy to the throne, Darius the Great then launches a massive program of construction, alteration and improvement to Pasargadae , and at Susa and Persepolis mostly. It then leads to further this work by creating urbanization Naghsh-e Rostam and undertakes to Babylon and Ecbatana. The inscriptions and foundation deposits clearly indicates that Darius wants to show the image of its sovereign power and unlimited . This monumental program will then continued by his successors: Persepolis and remains under construction until the fall of the Persian empire. Persian architectural style was at its peak. The plan of Persepolis is streamlined and well balanced: a square is systematized, hypostyle spaces are generalized. The columns are strictly arranged, including the annexes of the palaces. Another major innovation: the transitions to the sides of the porticoes are provided by corner towers to the Apadana. Large doors and various passages distribute traffic to the major buildings . The craftsmen who worked on these projects were to follow the letter of the data recorded by the king's advisers. Borrowings prior arts of the region are then combined into a royal art that follows a specific program: to show the domination of the Great King on the conquered peoples (as shown by the proclamations written or pictorial representations of Susa, Persepolis and Naghsh-e Rostam for example), but also show that the Great King assures the unity of the world while emphasizing its ethnic and cultural diversity under the protection of Ahura Mazda . All Achaemenid palace walls were systematically mud brick , which may seem surprising in an area where building stone is available in quantity. It's actually a feature common to all peoples of the East, who booked the walls of temples and stone walls. No walls of Persepolis has thus survived, the elements are still drawn frames for doors and stone columns . The most common form and most widespread of Achaemenid sculpture is the relief , particularly at Persepolis, where the bas-reliefs decorate systematically stairs, platforms alongside the palaces and the inner bays. It is also assumed that they were used in the decoration of rooms hypostyle. You can see the inspirations Egyptian and Assyrian or Greek for the finesse of execution. We meet most stereotypes representations Oriental antiques: all the characters are portrayed in profile, if the perspective is sometimes present, the various plans are generally provided under the other one, the proportions between the characters, animals and trees are not met, the principle of isocephalia is strictly enforced, including the different steps. The subjects represented are processions of representatives of the peoples of the empire, Persian nobles and guards, court scenes, performances and battles royal between a hero and royal animals, real or imaginary. These bas-reliefs are remarkable for their workmanship, every detail is rendered with great delicacy . Very little is known of Achaemenid sculpture in the round , that of Darius, found at Susa is the best known (see cons). It is however not a single example, eg, Plutarch mentions that Persepolis was a large statue of Xerxes I . However, many decorative items may be considered for the round. It is mainly used for representations of real animals or mythological , often included as architectural elements in the doors and marquees. These are mainly bulls , which are represented as guardians of the gates, and the portico of the Hall of Hundred Columns. The column capitals end with transoms protomes animal: bulls, lions , griffins ... Animals are very stylized, with no change . Some statues fully in the round were also found, such as that showing a dog , that decorated a corner tower of the Apadana. Contrary to Persepolis, the palace of Susa are not bas-reliefs carved in stone. The decoration is done by making sets of brick glazed large ceramic panels of polychrome Mesopotamian inspiration. Y are divided animal figures (lions, bulls, griffins) and representations of Mlophores Persepolitan like reliefs. Polychromy plays an important role in Achaemenid art representative, transfiguring the characters and figures represented, giving the palate a colorful glow . Despite the discovery of polychrome ceramics from Susa, the use of colorful paintings at Persepolis has often been underestimated because of the many changes experienced by the pigments over time. The identification of multiple colors on many pieces from most of the palaces and buildings Persepolitan attests to the richness and pervasiveness of polychrome paintings in Persepolis. It is not only evidence-based pigment traces on persistent objects, but there is conclusive proof as agglomerates of paintings forming lumps, colors with caked in bowls found in multiple places on the site. These colors were used not only on architectural elements (walls, reliefs, columns, doors, floors, stairs, statues), but also on tissues and other decorations. Glazed bricks, flooring lime colored with red ocher or greenish-gray gypsum, painted columns and other hangings adorn the interiors and exteriors and palaces. The wide range of colors found in fact gives an idea of the rich polychrome originally present: black (asphalt), red (opaque red glass, vermilion, hematite red ocher), green, Egyptian blue, white, yellow (tan or golden). The use of plant pigments is mentioned, but is so far not demonstrated . The jewelry is a vital area of the tribute imposed by sovereign nations subject Persian. The reliefs of the tributaries and the Persepolis tablets reveal the importance of drainage works of art from the Persians through all their possessions Review of the reign of the Persians in the ancient Near East In the history of the ancient Near East , the Achaemenid Empire was a special place. Under the reign of Achaemenid What brought together the kingdoms before competing in the same state formation that stretched between the Indus and the Aegean. The previous kingdoms have effectively disappeared, replaced by the administrative organization of the empire, the empire that also preserved the traditions of the empires conquered and has reestablished a new set by introducing a new ideology as shown in particular Art Achaemenid administrative or traditions. The proper elements are prominent Iranian therein. It is likely that by supporting the Kings were on the noble Persian Achaemenid Great Kings have secured their power so long . However, the extreme diversity of peoples throughout the empire makes any clear idea of the exact nature of the right of royal power over the nations of the empire. But its structure made it difficult perhaps its transformation into nation-state. This weakness allows Macedonian to lead their attacks on the Persian Empire. Alexander takes up part of the model arises Achaemenid and successor of Darius III, which earned him the opposition of the nobility Macedonian, who can not hold the estate of Alexander after his expedition to India . The creation of the great Hellenistic Seleucid kingdoms that followed in the region is in part taken place in the continuity of Achaemenid practices. Some kings of the Hellenic and Balkan countries to resume even their account of the social practices of the Persians to create a common culture with the nobles of the conquered country . 
kept at the National Museum of Iran Sculpture
Polychromy
Court of Silverware
Notes
References
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